The structure, named the Midpoint cloud, is an example of a Giant Molecular Cloud (GMC). It was discovered by the team using the Green Bank Telescope. Peeling back the layers of the Midpoint cloud, they found dynamic regions including several potential sites of new star formation and dense lanes of dust feeding the heart of our galaxy.

"No one had any idea this cloud existed until we looked at this location in the sky and found the dense gas," team leader and National Radio Astronomy Observatory scientist Natalie Butterfield said. "Through measurements of the size, mass, and density, we confirmed this was a giant molecular cloud."

The active region of the GMC and its thick lanes of matter could reveal how material flows from the Milky Way's disk to the very heart of our galaxy.

"These dust lanes are like hidden rivers of gas and dust that are carrying material into the center of our galaxy,” Butterfield continued. "The Midpoint cloud is a place where material from the galaxy’s disk is transitioning into the more extreme environment of the galactic center and provides a unique opportunity to study the initial gas conditions before accumulating in the center of our galaxy."

The gas within the Midpoint cloud exists in a turbulent state, which mirrors conditions found within gas at the Milky Way's center. This chaotic motion could be triggered by material flowing along dust lanes itself or by clashes between the Midpoint cloud and other molecular clouds.

Also within the Midpoint cloud are several clumps of dense gas and dust that could be about to collapse and birth new stars.

One clump, designated Knot E, appears to be a small but dense cloud of gas that is in the process of being eroded by the radiation blasted at it by stars in its proximity. Formations like this are referred to as free-floating evaporating gas globules (frEGGs).

The astronomers also discovered a new source of intense microwave radiation called a "maser" that could be further evidence of intense star formation within the Midpoint cloud.

The researchers didn't just discover evidence of stellar birth with this GMC, however. A shell-like structure in the Midpoint cloud appears to have been caused by the explosive supernova deaths of massive stars.

The research conducted by the team suggests the Midpoint cloud is vital to the flow of matter from the disk of the Milky Way to its heart.

This would feed star formation in the thick central stellar bar that churns around the center of our galaxy. Similar structures of dense stars are found in other barred spiral galaxies.

That means further investigation of this cloud and its surroundings could help develop a clearer picture of how the building blocks of stars gather at the center of galaxies.

"Star formation in galactic bars is a bit of a puzzle," team member and Green Bank Observatory scientist Larry Morgan said. "The strong forces in these regions can actually suppress star formation.

"However, the leading edges of these bars, such as where the Midpoint is located, can accumulate dense gas and trigger new star formation."

The team's research was published on Wednesday (July 16) in The Astrophysical Journal.

Although we may not see it with our eyes or in the photos we capture with our standard cameras or phones, the sun is constantly changing. Structures on the surface or lower atmosphere of the sun can vary from day to day, or even from hour to hour. In this guide, we'll outline what you'll need to safely photograph our ever-changing sun and what structures you can hope to image.

Safety: Take precautions

It is important not to look directly at the sun. Doing so for even short durations can permanently damage your eyes. If you want to look up at the sun for reference, use a pair of certified solar eclipse glasses. Check out some of the best solar viewing gear, but note that some products allow you to photograph the sun safely through a camera or a telescope, but are not rated for direct observation with your eyes. See our guide on how to observe the sun safely.

Cameras, lenses and settings

No matter how you adjust the settings, even on the best cameras for astrophotography, the sun will remain too bright for you to successfully image any detail if you don't use the right equipment. Therefore, to photograph the sun, you must significantly reduce its effective brightness.

You can do this with a neutral-density filter, which attaches to the end of your camera lens. Neutral-density filters are used in all kinds of photography, but many will not have the power to block out enough sunlight to image the sun. Therefore, you should look for a neutral-density filter designed especially for solar photography.

With this filter attached to your camera, you will be able to successfully photograph the sun in optical light. Different filters may also change the apparent color of the sun in your image, with gray/white and orange/yellow being common filter options.

It's important to note that although a purpose-made filter can reduce the sun's brightness enough to image the star, it is not enough to protect your eyes from sunlight. Therefore, while using a neutral-density filter for solar photography, do not look into the optical viewfinder on your camera (if you have one). Instead, use the digital display. Similarly, do not use the filter to look directly at the sun.

The size of the sun in your image will depend on the focal length of your camera lens. At a minimum, you'll need a 200-millimeter telephoto lens. However, as shown in the images below, this will leave a lot of empty space in your camera frame. The longer the focal length, the larger the sun will appear in your image, and thus the higher the resolution of the sun will be. The images below show how the sun looks in a selection of focal lengths on the Nikon D850, a full-frame DSLR camera.

Once your lens and filter are sorted, you can play around with your camera settings.

1. Set your camera to aperture-priority mode. Typically, an aperture between f/5.6 and f/8 will give the best performance for most lenses, but you can play around with it to see what works best for your setup.

2. Adjust your exposure time. The exposure time you set may depend on several factors. If you do not have a tripod or you are using a tripod in strong wind, you will want to shorten your exposure time. This will reduce the total wobble throughout the exposure and lead to a sharper image. If you have a strong tripod and wind is not an issue, you can afford to increase the exposure time, which will decrease the noise levels.

3. Set your ISO. You do not want an ISO sensitivity high enough to saturate the image, but you need it high enough to avoid adding noise. A longer exposure time will allow for a shorter ISO, without introducing too much noise. Play around with these settings to find a combination that works for you. As with nighttime astronomy, another good tip is to not take the photograph immediately by clicking the capture button (if you're using a tripod), as your interaction with the camera will cause the system to wobble. Instead, set a timer for 10 seconds or longer, or use a remote control to take the shot.

Photographing the sun with telescopes

If you are feeling more ambitious, you can photograph the sun with one of the best telescopes. We won't dive much into the camera setup here, as it will be similar to that used in nighttime astronomy. You can either mount your usual camera to the telescope directly or use a purpose-made eyepiece camera. Either way, the important pieces of equipment typically sit at the other end of the telescope that's pointing at the sun.

Different filters allow us to see different layers of the sun, so let's quickly recap these layers of our local star. The surface of the sun is called the photosphere. This is the layer of the sun that emits the sunlight visible to the human eye. Above the photosphere, which has a temperature of around 10,000 degrees Fahrenheit (5,500 degrees Celsius), is a layer called the chromosphere. The chromosphere is cooler and less dense than the photosphere, with a temperature around 7,200 F (4,000 C). Above the chromosphere, temperatures rapidly increase through a thin transition region, before reaching the solar corona. The corona is the tenuous outer atmosphere of the sun, with temperatures of around 1.8 million F (1 million C), which becomes visible to us during a total solar eclipse.

Just like on your camera, you can attach a purpose-made solar filter to the end of your telescope. Alternatively, you can use a dedicated solar telescope, which utilizes a system of internal filters. Filters block the majority of sunlight, allowing only a small amount of light into your telescope. Different filters allow in light from different layers of the sun, thus changing the features of interest available to your photography. The three primary filter types are white light, H-alpha and Ca K.

A white-light filter removes over 99.9% of the intensity of incoming sunlight, but it does not filter by wavelength. With a white-light filter, you will receive sunlight from the sun's surface. If you have a larger telescope aperture or you plan to point at the sun for a long time, an ultraviolet and infrared (UV/IR) filter is also recommended. This will not affect your photo, but it will remove excess light to prevent it from heating up your telescope system.

Unlike white-light filters, which image the photosphere, H-alpha and Ca K filters image a higher layer of the sun, the chromosphere. These filters work by filtering light by wavelength, instead of just intensity, to allow in light from a narrow part of the solar spectrum.

H-alpha is light emitted by hydrogen plasma at a specific energy level that is dominant in the chromosphere. This light is at a wavelength of 656.28 nanometers, which sits in the red part of the visible spectrum. When you use an H-alpha filter, the sun therefore appears red. H-alpha filters can be broadband (about 1 Å) or narrowband (0.5 Å). These will alter the view of the chromosphere slightly. Some filters are also tunable, which allows you to adjust the wavelength range of the filter. Ca K filters filter a wavelength of light emitted by calcium plasma at 393.4 nm, which appears blue to the human eye.

When you're using an external filter on your telescope, do not remove the eyepiece from the viewfinder scope. Whether you're using a dedicated solar telescope or an external filter on a nighttime telescope, different filters will show different features on the sun. The images below show the sun photographed through the H-alpha and Ca K filters discussed above. White-light images are shown earlier in this article.

Features on the sun

Now that you have your full setup, let's take a look at the structures you can hope to see on the sun.

Sunspots

The easiest feature on the sun to photograph are sunspots. Sunspots are cooler parts of the photosphere created by strong regions of concentrated magnetic field. The intense magnetic field above sunspots is what creates solar flares and coronal mass ejections.

A sunspot looks like a dark structure with a darker inner section (the umbra) and slightly lighter (yet still darker than the surrounding photosphere) penumbra around it. Sunspots can exist for weeks or months, but they can change significantly over a few hours as new magnetic fields emerge, or cancel out, within the region. Sunspots are visible in the photosphere through white-light filters and solar telescopes. They are still visible in chromospheric filters (H-alpha and Ca K), but the contrast is not as stark.

Filaments

At higher altitudes, a different type of magnetic structure is visible. Filaments are twisted magnetic structures full of chromospheric material. They are rooted in the lower solar atmosphere, but they stretch into higher altitudes in the corona. Because they are composed of material from the chromosphere, filaments are not visible with standard white-light filters. Instead, they require either H-alpha or Ca II filters to be seen. At these wavelengths, filaments appear dark against the bright solar disk.

Prominences

Whereas filaments are viewed against the sun's surface, prominences are the same structure but seen over the edge of the sun. Against the background of space, prominences appear bright. They can be photographed with the same filters as filaments, and they can also be seen with the naked eye during the totality phase of a total solar eclipse. A tunable narrow H-Alpha filter will really make prominences and filaments pop against their background. You can also play around with the exposure time to change the contrast of the prominences against the dark background.

Solar eclipses

Although the advice outlined in this article can be used to photograph the sun anytime, it is also valid during the partial phases of a solar eclipse, when the sun is partially blocked by the moon. The moon's edge provides a new feature to photograph, with the intricate irregularities of craters along the moon's silhouette visible. For further advice on photographing the partial or total phases of a solar eclipse, check out our guide on how to photograph a solar eclipse.

If you want to read more about the science of observing the sun and the history of our relationship with it, check out my book "The Sun: Beginner's guide to our local star (Collins, 2023).

A giant parachute built for Europe's beleaguered ExoMars mission has aced a drop test with a mock lander during a test campaign in the Arctic.

The double parachute system consists of a 50-foot-wide (15-meter) first-stage chute and a secondary 118-foot-wide (35m) chute, which is, according to ESA, the largest ever designed to land an object on Mars.

If all goes well, it will lower the 683-pound (310-kilogram) Rosalind Franklin rover to the surface of the red planet in 2028, so that it can commence its delayed search for traces of Martian life.

The parachute system had had a complicated journey with many test failures but was deemed ready for the planned launch in 2022 before the mission was suspended after Russia invaded Ukraine. Since Europe withdrew from its collaboration with Russia, who had provided the landing platform and a few other bits of technology for the mission, the parachute has been stored waiting for a new landing platform to be built in Europe.

"We are running this campaign to confirm our readiness for Mars, and to verify that the parachutes are still performing as expected after the long storage," Luca Ferracina, ESA's ExoMars Entry Descent and Landing Module system engineer, said in a statement.

That's good news for the mission, which has been in limbo since the Trump administration's draft NASA budget was released in May. NASA committed to provide a few hundred million dollars to help ESA get ExoMars off the ground in 2028, but the Trump budget culled that funding as part of its widespread science mission cuts. But the U.S. Senate's Appropriations Committee rejected those cuts in its report published on Friday, July 18, suggesting that Trump's budget may not find support among legislators.

ESA is surely following the discussions closely as NASA's withdrawal would likely cause further delays to the heavily delayed mission.

Earlier this year, ESA signed a $194 million contract with the European aerospace giant Airbus to build the new landing platform. During the parachute tests, its mock-up descended to the ground at Sweden's Esrange Space Center in Kiruna from the altitude of 18.6 miles (30 kilometers) after having been dropped from a high-altitude balloon. The capsule, according to ESA, experienced about 20 seconds of free fall before the first of the parachutes unfurled.

Although the atmosphere of Mars has only about 1% of the density of Earth's atmosphere, the engineers fine tuned the test to recreate the forces the landing assembly will experience on Mars.

"The combination of velocity and low atmospheric density in this test is exactly the same as what the parachutes will experience on Mars," Ferracina said.

During the Mars landing, the capsule will hit the red planet's tenuous atmosphere at a mind-boggling speed of 13,050 mph (21,000 km/h) but will slow down to about 1,000 miles per hour from natural drag before the first parachute opens. During the tests, the mock-up capsule reached about that speed after its short freefall through the thin stratospheric air.

"We are happy to confirm that we have a parachute design that can work on Mars — an ambitious system with the largest parachute ever to be flown outside Earth," Ferracina said.

What is it?

The Vera Rubin Observatory is designed to study dark matter, which makes up 85% of our universe but is still unknown to scientists. Dark matter can create various effects in space thanks to its gravity, such as lensing, which astronomers can capture with the observatory's telescopes, hoping to find more about what makes up dark matter.

Astronomers are also using these telescopes to study dark energy as well as the Milky Way galaxy and other structures in our universe.

Where is it?

The Vera Rubin Observatory is located in Cerro Pachón in Chile at an elevation of 5,200 feet (1,600 meters) above sea level.

Why is it amazing?

In this image, the observatory's opening can be seen thanks to the glow of its its calibration LEDs. As the telescope scans the skies once every three days with the world's largest digital camera, the calibration process helps ensure all the equipment is working properly.

The observatory has just begun its decade-long Legacy Survey of Space and Time (LSST) mission, where it will repeatedly scan the southern sky. Using the largest camera, the observatory captures detailed images that are so large they require a "data butler" to help manage them. Despite the size, the images could be the key to cracking the case of what dark matter truly is.

Want to learn more?

You can read more about the Vera Rubin Observatory, the legacy of Vera Rubin, and the hunt for dark matter.

Prior to 3I/ATLAS, the previous two "interstellar invaders" were 1I/'Oumuamua, spotted in 2017, and 2I/Borisov, detected in 2019. Both have now left the solar system, though other interstellar bodies are predicted to dwell undetected in our cosmic backyard.

As Space.com reported on July 11, recent research suggested that 3I/ATLAS could be even more exciting than initially perceived, as its trajectory through the solar system indicates it comes from a region of the Milky Way older than our 4.6 billion-year-old solar system. With an estimated age of 7 billion years, that would make 3I/ATLAS the oldest comet we've ever seen.

Astrophysics undergrad student astrafoxen alerted his followers to the Hubble images of 3I/ATLAS via this Bluesky feed.

"Hubble Space Telescope images of interstellar comet 3I/ATLAS are out! These were taken 5 hours ago. Plenty of cosmic rays peppering the images, but the comet's coma looks very nice and puffy. Best of luck to the researchers trying to write up papers for this... " the post reads.

Hubble Space Telescope images of interstellar comet 3I/ATLAS are out! These were taken 5 hours ago. Plenty of cosmic rays peppering the images, but the comet's coma looks very nice and puffy. Best of luck to the researchers trying to write up papers for this... archive.stsci.edu/proposal_sea... 🔭

— @astrafoxen.bsky.social (@astrafoxen.bsky.social.bsky.social) 2025-07-22T09:45:35.680Z

One such paper is already available, albeit as a preprint. Describing optical and near-infrared spectroscopy performed on 3I/ATLAS, the research reveals that: "3I/ATLAS is an active interstellar comet containing abundant water ice, with a dust composition more similar to D-type asteroids than to ultrared trans-Neptunian objects."

D-type asteroids are space rocks packed with organic molecule-rich silicates and carbon with water ice in their interiors.

The arrival of 3I/ATLAS into the solar system has initiated an exciting period for astronomers. Since the solar system interloper was spotted on July 1, 2025, by the ATLAS survey telescope, an array of other instruments have attempted to get in on the act by spotting the comet.

One project that will be trying to get a good look at 3I/ATLAS is the Vera C. Rubin Observatory, which observes the universe near and far with the largest digital camera ever built. That is fitting, as the comet from beyond the solar system was actually first spotted as scientists were preparing to make observations with Rubin.

The new observatory, which released its first images of the cosmos on June 23, 2025, is expected to discover between 5 and 50 interstellar objects as they zip through the solar system during the observatory's decade-long Legacy Survey of Space and Time (LSST).

In the meantime, 3I/ATLAS can enjoy the undivided attention of astronomers aiming to study interstellar bodies with a view to painting an intimate picture of planetary systems beyond our own.

The Hubble images of 3I/ATLAS are available to download from this database.

For decades, scientists pictured Europa's frozen surface as a still, silent shell. But the new observations reveal that it's actually a dynamic world that's far from frozen in time.

"We think that the surface is fairly porous and warm enough in some areas to allow the ice to recrystallize rapidly," Richard Cartwright, a spectroscopist at Johns Hopkins University's Applied Physics Laboratory and lead author of the new study, said in a statement.

Perhaps even more exciting is what this surface activity reveals about Europa's subsurface ocean. The presence of geologic activity and ongoing cycling between the subsurface and surface make "chaos terrains" — highly disrupted regions where blocks of ice seem to have broken off, drifted and refrozen — especially valuable as potential windows into Europa's interior.

The study focused on two regions in Europa's southern hemisphere: Tara Regio and Powys Regio. Tara Regio, in particular, stands out as one of the moon's most intriguing areas. Observations from JWST detected crystalline ice both at the surface and deeper below — challenging previous assumptions about how ice is distributed on Europa.

Related: Explore Jupiter's icy ocean moon Europa in NASA virtual tour (photos)

By measuring the spectral properties of these "chaos" regions using remotely sensed data, scientists could gain valuable insight about Europa's chemistry as well as its potential for habitability, they explained in the paper, which was published May 28 in The Planetary Science Journal.

"Our data showed strong indications that what we are seeing must be sourced from the interior, perhaps from a subsurface ocean nearly 20 miles (30 kilometers) beneath Europa's thick icy shell," Ujjwal Raut, program manager at the Southwest Research Institute and co-author of the study, said in the statement.

Hidden chemistry

Raut and his team conducted laboratory experiments to study how water freezes on Europa, where the surface is constantly bombarded by charged particles from space. Unlike on Earth, where ice naturally forms a hexagonal crystal structure, the intense radiation on Europa disrupts the ice's structure, causing it to become what's known as amorphous ice — a disordered, noncrystalline form.

The experiments played a crucial role in demonstrating how the ice changes over time. By studying how the ice transforms between different states, scientists can learn more about the moon's surface dynamics. When combined with fresh data from JWST, these findings add to a growing body of evidence showing that a vast, hidden liquid ocean lies beneath Europa's icy shell.

"In this same region […] we see a lot of other unusual things, including the best evidence for sodium chloride, like table salt, probably originating from its interior ocean," Cartwright said. "We also see some of the strongest evidence for CO₂ and hydrogen peroxide on Europa. The chemistry in this location is really strange and exciting."

These regions, marked by fractured surface features, may point to geologic activity pushing material up from beneath Europa's icy shell.

JWST's NIRSpec instrument is especially well suited for studying Europa's surface because it can detect key chemical signatures across a wide range of infrared wavelengths. This includes features associated with crystalline water ice and a specific form of carbon dioxide called ¹³CO₂, which are important for understanding the moon's geologic and chemical processes.

NIRSpec can measure these features all at once while also creating detailed maps that show how these materials are distributed across Europa's surface. Its high sensitivity and ability to collect both spectral and spatial data make it an ideal tool for uncovering clues about what lies beneath Europa's icy crust.

The team detected higher levels of carbon dioxide in these areas than in surrounding regions. They concluded that it likely originates from the subsurface ocean rather than from external sources like meteorites, which would have resulted in a more even distribution.

Moreover, carbon dioxide is unstable under Europa's intense radiation environment, suggesting that these deposits are relatively recent and tied to ongoing geological processes. "The evidence for a liquid ocean underneath Europa's icy shell is mounting, which makes this so exciting as we continue to learn more," Raut said.

Another intriguing finding was the presence of carbon-13, an isotope of carbon. "Where is this ¹³CO₂ coming from? It's hard to explain, but every road leads back to an internal origin, which is in line with other hypotheses about the origin of ¹²CO₂ detected in Tara Regio," Cartwright said.

This study arrives as NASA's Europa Clipper mission is currently en route to the Jovian moon, with an expected arrival in April 2030. The spacecraft will perform dozens of flybys, with each one bringing it closer to Europa's surface to gather critical data about the ocean hidden beneath the moon's icy crust.

The proposed mission, called CosmoCube, aims to "listen" for these ancient signals from the far side of the moon. It will target the "cosmic dark ages" — a critical-but-mysterious era roughly 50 million to 1 billion years after the Big Bang, when the first stars, galaxies and black holes in the universe formed.

"It's incredible how far these radio waves have travelled, now arriving with news of the universe's history," David Bacon, a cosmologist at the University of Portsmouth in the U.K. who's involved with the mission, said in a statement. "The next step is to go to the quieter side of the moon to hear that news."

Observing this distant epoch is notoriously difficult, astronomers say. At that time, the universe was filled with a dense fog of neutral hydrogen gas that blocked visible light from traveling freely through space, rendering the early cosmos opaque.

However, hydrogen, which is the most abundant element in the universe, emits a characteristic radio signal at a frequency of 1,420 megahertz, corresponding to a wavelength of about 8.3 inches (21 centimeters). As the first luminous objects ignited, they subtly transformed the hydrogen around them, altering the strength and profile of this signal. Capturing these variations could offer a pristine view into how the first luminous objects formed, according to the statement.

While this signal has been studied extensively in the nearby universe, detecting its much fainter counterpart from the universe's earliest days is far more challenging. Capturing these ancient signals requires near-total radio silence, which is virtually impossible to achieve on Earth, where electronic devices and atmospheric interference create a constant background hum.

"It's like trying to hear that whisper while a loud concert is playing next door," Eloy de Lera Acedo, an associate professor of radio cosmology at the University of Cambridge who's involved with the CosmoCube mission, said in the statement. "This makes it really hard to pick up those faint signals from billions of years ago."

The CosmoCube mission would take advantage of the moon's far side, which acts as a natural shield from Earth's radio emissions, according to the statement. From this unique vantage point, the probe aims to deploy a sensitive radiometer designed to detect low-frequency radio signals.

The mission data could also help to resolve the Hubble tension, the long-standing puzzle in cosmology involving conflicting measurements of the universe's expansion rate based on observations of the early universe versus the local universe.

Lab prototypes of the instruments are already undergoing environmental testing. The team plans to launch CosmoCube within the next four to five years, with the goal of reaching lunar orbit by the end of the decade, the team said in the statement.

Now, scientists have discovered that these celestial bodies may have more in common than once thought. The star clusters may share a common origin mechanism, they say, despite the fact that the three clusters are all different ages and are located at different distances from Earth.

This new research suggests looking at the three star clusters is like looking at three snapshots taken of the same person at three different stages of their life, from infancy to old age.

The youngest of these open clusters is the ONC at 2.5 million years old. Located around 1,350 light-years away and packed with thousands of young stars embedded in the stellar cloud that created them, it is one of the most active star-forming regions in the Milky Way.

Located 444 light-years from Earth, the Pleiades is less densely packed than the ONC, but it is much more ancient at 100 million years old. However, the Hyades, located 151 light-years away, has fewer stars that are even more thinly spread out and is around 700 million years old.

Yet, as diverse as these star clusters seem, the team's new research suggests they share a particular kind of ancestor.

"Our highly precise stellar dynamics calculations have now shown that all three star clusters originated from the same predecessor," team member and University of Bonn researcher Pavel Kroupa said in a statement.

Star clusters on the same cosmic family tree

The team compares the varied ages and conditions in these three star clusters to looking at the same human being through photos that document the stages of their life. The densely packed ONC is the baby, the more dispersed Pleiades is the adolescent, and the Hyades is the elderly person.

Though the three clusters didn't form from the same molecular cloud of dense gas and dust, they can be compared to the same person being born three times in different parts of the globe.

"From this, we can learn that open star clusters seem to have a preferred mode of star formation," Kroupa explained. "It appears that there is a preferred physical environment in which stars form when they evolve within these clouds."

The question is: How does a cluster like the ONC develop into one like Pleiades and then age into a cluster like the Hyades? Kroupa and colleagues, including team leader Ghasem Safaei from the Institute for Advanced Studies in Basic Sciences, set about answering this question with computer simulations.

Star clusters grow old gracefully

The team's simulations revealed the forces acting between stars in a cluster. This allowed the scientists to model the life cycle of such a collection of stars from a gas-rich, dense infancy through gradual expansion and gradual gas and star loss over the course of 800 million years.

The results obtained by the team closely reflected the changes in structure and composition between the phases we see exemplified by the ONC, the Pleiades and the Hyades.

"This research shows that it is entirely plausible that star clusters such as the ONC follow a development path that transforms them into systems like Pleiades and later on Hyades," Hosein Haghi, study team member and a researcher at the University of Bonn, said in the statement.

The team's results indicated that clusters like the ONC can lose up to 85% of their stellar population and yet hang on to coherent structures when they reach ages similar to that of the Hyades while passing through a stage that resembles the Pleiades.

The team's research also suggests that the fact these three clusters appear close together in the night sky over Earth, despite being widely separated in the cosmos, may be more than a mere coincidence. This positioning could, in fact, be related to the way star clusters form and evolve in relation to our galaxy.

"This research gives us a deeper understanding of how star clusters form and develop and illustrates the delicate balance between internal dynamics and external forces such as the gravitational pull of the Milky Way," team member Akram Hasani Zonoozi of the University of Bonn said in the statement.

Beyond the research's importance for our understanding of star clusters and their evolution, the team's work demonstrates the power of combining simulations with astronomical observations.

This research was published on Friday (July 18) in the journal Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society.

New evidence found in shavings from a meteorite known as Northwest Africa 12264 — a 50-gram (1.8 ounces) piece of space rock that is believed to have formed in the outer solar system — suggests that rocky planets like Earth and distant icy bodies may have formed at the same time. This challenges the long-standing belief that planets closer to the sun formed before those in the outer solar system, the ones that lie beyond the asteroid belt between Mars and Jupiter.

Planets form within the rotating disks of gas and dust that surround young stars, where particles collide and stick together through a process known as accretion. As developing rocky planets heat up, they begin to differentiate, forming separate internal layers known as the core, mantle and crust.

Scientists have thought that our solar system's inner rocky planets — Mercury, Venus, Earth and Mars —formed first (around 4.566 billion years ago), while gas giants and icy bodies in the outer solar system came together slightly later (4.563 billion years ago), due to the colder temperatures at a greater distance from the sun. Rocky planets farther out were also thought to form more slowly because their higher water and ice content would have delayed internal heating and core development.

Analyzing the composition of the meteorite (which was purchased from a dealer in Morocco in 2018) revealed a ratio of chromium and oxygen that indicates it came from the outer part of the solar system. Using precise isotopic dating methods, the researchers found that the rock formed 4.564 billion years ago — just two to three million years after the solar system’s earliest solid materials.

Until now, such early formation was thought to be limited to bodies from the inner solar system, according to a statement announcing the new study.

Evidence that rocky planets beyond Jupiter formed as rapidly, and at the same time, as the inner planets could transform our understanding of how planets take shape — not only in our solar system, but in planetary systems throughout the universe, the researchers said.

Their findings were published on July 4 in the journal Communications Earth & Environment.

After a long wait, astronomers have finally seen the stellar companion of the famous star Betelgeuse. This companion star orbits Betelgeuse in an incredibly tight orbit, which could explain one of Betelgeuse's longstanding mysteries. The star is doomed, however, and the team behind this discovery predicts that Betelgeuse will cannibalize it in a few thousand years.

The fact that Betelgeuse is one of the brightest stars in the sky over Earth, visible with the naked eye, has made it one of the most well-known celestial bodies. And ever since the first astronomers began inspecting this fixture in the night sky, they have been baffled by the fact that its brightness varies over periods of six years.

This mystery is now solved.

The six-year dimming of this red supergiant star is not to be confused with an event that saw it drop sharply in brightness over 2019 and 2020. This event, known as the "Great Dimming," sparked intense interest across the globe. The Great Dimming was so unexpected that it led some scientists to theorize that it could signal Betelgeuse was approaching the supernova explosion that will one day mark the end of its life.

That supernova speculation was well-founded. After all, though it is only around 10 million years old, the fact that Betelgeuse is 700 times the size of the sun means it has burned through its nuclear fuel much faster than our 4.6 billion-year-old star. That means its supernova death is likely approaching. However, in 2023, the Great Dimming was explained by a giant obscuring cloud of dust emitted by Betelgeuse.

Even though the mystery of the Great Dimming was solved, this event spurred a renewed interest in this ever-so familiar star, the tenth brightest in the night sky. That renewed interest included the desire of astronomers to solve the less dramatic but more regular periodic dimming of Betelgeuse.

The lesser dimming of Betelgeuse

Betelgeuse has a primary period of variability that lasts around 400 days, as well as a second, more extended dimming period lasting around six years.

Unlike the Great Dimming, which perplexed scientists for only a few years, this regular "heartbeat" of Betelgeuse has baffled humanity for millennia!

It was while reviewing archival data that scientists began to theorize that the six-year variability of Betelgeuse could be the work of a hidden companion star. However, deeper investigation with the Hubble Space Telescope and NASA's X-ray space observatory Chandra left scientists coming up empty-handed in terms of a companion star.

Undeterred, NASA Ames Research Center scientist Steve Howell led a team of astrophysicists who set about investigating Betelgeuse with the Gemini North telescope and its 'Alopeke (Hawaiian for "fox") instrument.

"Gemini North's ability to obtain high angular resolutions and sharp contrasts allowed the companion of Betelgeuse to be directly detected," Howell said in a statement. "Papers that predicted Betelgeuse's companion believed that no one would likely ever be able to image it."

The 'Alopeke instrument uses a technique in astronomy called "speckle imaging" that uses short exposure times to remove distortions from images that are caused by Earth's atmosphere. This provided the Gemini North telescope with the high-resolution capability to detect the faint companion of Betelgeuse for the first time ever.

Howell and colleagues were able to do more than just image the companion star of Betelgeuse; they were also able to determine some of its characteristics.

What do we know about Betelgeuse's companion?

The team thinks the star has a mass around 1.5 times that of the sun and that it is a hot blue-white star orbiting Betelgeuse at a distance equivalent to four times the distance between Earth and the sun, fairly close for binary stars. That means it exists within the extended atmosphere of Betelgeuse. This represents the first time a companion star has been detected so close to a red supergiant.

The team also theorizes that this star has not yet begun to burn hydrogen in its core, the process that defines the main sequence lifetime of a star. Thus, the Betelgeuse system appears to consist of two stars that exist at opposite ends of their lives, despite the fact that both stars formed at the same time!

That's because larger and more massive stars don't just burn through their nuclear fuel more rapidly; they also initiate the fusion of hydrogen to helium earlier. However, in this case, this delay doesn't mean that Betelgeuse's companion is in for a long life; the intense gravity of Betelgeuse is likely to drag the smaller star into it, devouring it.

The team estimates this cannibalistic event could happen within the next 10,000 years.

In the meantime, astronomers will get another look at the stellar companion of Betelgeuse in November 2027 when it achieves maximum separation from the infamous red supergiant star.

Beyond this research's implications for Betelgeuse and its ill-fated companion, it tells scientists more about why red supergiants undergo periodic changes in brightness how periods of many years.

"This detection was at the very extremes of what can be accomplished with Gemini in terms of high-angular resolution imaging, and it worked," Howell said. "This now opens the door for other observational pursuits of a similar nature."

The team's research was published on Monday (July 21) across two papers in The Astrophysical Journal.

ESA has chosen five rocket companies to pass through to the next round of its competition to encourage and support the development of new launch vehicles.

The agency announced on July 7 that it had selected German companies Isar Aerospace and Rocket Factory Augsburg (RFA), Maiaspace from France, Spain's PLD Space and Orbital Express Launch, or Orbex, which is based in the United Kingdom, to proceed to the next stage of its European Launcher Challenge.

The European Launcher Challenge (ELC) is a new scheme to promote new small and medium-sized launch vehicles and boost competitiveness in Europe, which for decades has relied on large Ariane rockets.

The challenge was announced in November 2023, followed by a request for information and a formal call for proposals in March 2025, leading to ESA announcing the preselected challengers. The ELC has two components. The first is for launch services to be performed for ESA from 2026 to 2030, while the second is for development and demonstration of larger, upgraded launchers.

Each chosen company will be eligible for up to 169 million euros ($198 million US) in support to cover one or both of these components. The ESA member states will finalize funding decisions in November at the agency's crucial ministerial council, which will set funding for projects for the next three years.

Both Isar Aerospace and RFA have made it to the pad already. Isar's Spectrum rocket had a first, short-lived flight in March from Norway, with the launcher exploding seconds in flight. RFA's RFA One rocket exploded on the pad in the Shetland Islands back in August 2024 during a static fire test.

PLD Space conducted a suborbital flight of its Miura 1 rocket in 2023, as a stepping stone toward launching the orbital Miura 5. Orbex, meanwhile, is working on its Prime microlauncher, while Maiaspace is developing its reusable Maia rocket.

These are not the only European companies engaged in developing new rockets, with Skyrora (U.K.), Latitude (France) and HyImpulse (Germany) at various stages of developing their rocket concepts.

Astronomers have seen what appears to be a forming planet carving out a complex pattern in a disk of gas and dust around a young star. The discovery of this spiral architect could help us better understand how planetary systems like the solar system came to be.

The infant extrasolar planet, or "exoplanet," is creating a spiral arm pattern in the planet-forming protoplanetary disk of the 10 million-year-old star HD 135344B, also known as SAO 206462, located in the Scorpius OB2-3 star-forming region. If 10 million years old doesn't seem particularly young, remember the sun is considered middle-aged — and its around 4.6 billion years old.

The discovery of the potential planetary culprit for this swirling spiral pattern was made using the Very Large Telescope (VLT) and its Enhanced Resolution Imager and Spectrograph ERIS) instrument. It may represent the first time astronomers have witnessed a planet actively forming within a protoplanetary disk.

"We will never witness the formation of Earth, but here, around a young star 440 light-years away, we may be watching a planet come into existence in real time," Francesco Maio, study team leader and a researcher at the University of Florence, said in a statement.

Maio and colleagues estimate this budding planet is around twice as large as Jupiter. It orbits HD 135344B at a similar distance to Neptune's orbit around the sun. That's about 30 times the distance between Earth and the sun.

And as this potential planet seems to carve channels into the protoplanetary disk of HD 135344B, it is gathering material to further facilitate its growth.

Baby exoplanet sweeps up stellar leftovers

Stars form from overly dense cool patches in vast clouds of interstellar gas and dust, which collapse under their own gravity. As these stars continue to grow, swirling clouds of gas and dust called protoplanetary disks settle around them. It is within this disk that planets will be born.

Astronomers predict that when this happens, these infant worlds sweep up material to build their own masses, creating intricate structures like rings and channels similar to the grooves in a record, and spirals resembling the spiral arms of the Milky Way. However, catching these exoplanet sculptors has been challenging.

Exemplifying this is the fact that astronomers had previously detected the spiral structure of HD 135344B's protoplanetary disk, using the VLT Spectro-Polarimetric High-contrast Exoplanet Research (SPHERE) instrument — but had missed evidence of a planet causing it.

However, ERIS allowed the VLT and its operators to dive deeper into this protoplanetary disk, revealing a prime suspect for its shape: a hidden exoplanet sculptor.

This potential baby planet lurks at the base of one of the disk's spiral arms. That is exactly where scientists have predicted such a spiral-sculpting infant planet should dwell.

"What makes this detection potentially a turning point is that, unlike many previous observations, we are able to directly detect the signal of the protoplanet, which is still highly embedded in the disk,” Maio explained. "This gives us a much higher level of confidence in the planet’s existence, as we’re observing the planet's own light."

The team's research was published on Monday (July 21) in the journal Astronomy & Astrophysics.

The difference will be just 1.34 milliseconds less than the standard 24 hours — not something you'll notice — but it's part of a puzzling trend in Earth's rotational behavior that has been unfolding in recent years. If it continues, a second may need to be subtracted from atomic clocks around 2029 — a so-called negative leap second, which has never been done before.

The speed of Earth's rotation isn't fixed. Long ago, a day was much shorter than the 24 hours — or 86,400 seconds — we're now accustomed to. According to a 2023 study, a day on Earth was approximately 19 hours for a significant part of Earth's early history, due to a balance between solar atmospheric tides and lunar ocean tides. However, over deep time, a day on Earth has become consistently longer. The primary culprit has been tidal friction from the moon, which has caused it to gradually move farther away from Earth. As it moves away, the moon saps Earth's rotational energy, causing Earth's rotation to slow and days to lengthen.

So why the sudden reverse?

From when records began (with the invention of the atomic clock) in 1973 until 2020, the shortest day ever recorded was 1.05 milliseconds less than 24 hours, according to Timeanddate.com. But since 2020, Earth has repeatedly broken its own speed records. The shortest day ever measured occurred on July 5, 2024, when Earth's rotation was completed 1.66 milliseconds faster than usual.

Looking ahead to 2025, scientists predicted that July 9, July 22, and Aug. 5 could be the shortest days of the year. However, new data suggests that July 10 took the lead as the shortest day so far in 2025, clocking in at 1.36 milliseconds less than 24 hours. On July 22, Earth is expected to complete its spin 1.34 milliseconds early, making it a close runner-up. If current predictions hold, Aug. 5 will be about 1.25 milliseconds shorter than usual, leaving July 22 as the second-shortest day of the year.

There are signs the acceleration may be easing. The rate of decrease in day length appears to be slowing, but the underlying cause of the recent rotational changes remains elusive.

One 2024 study suggested that the melting polar ice and rising sea levels may be influencing Earth's spin. However, rather than driving the acceleration, this redistribution of mass might be moderating it. A more likely culprit is deep below our feet — the slowing of Earth's liquid core, which could be redistributing angular momentum in a way that makes the mantle and crust spin slightly faster.

"The cause of this acceleration is not explained," Leonid Zotov, a leading authority on Earth rotation at Moscow State University, told Timeanddate.com. "Most scientists believe it is something inside the Earth. Ocean and atmospheric models don't explain this huge acceleration."

Zotov predicts Earth’s rotation may soon decelerate once again. If he’s right, this sudden speeding-up could prove to be just a temporary anomaly in the planet’s long-term trend toward slower rotation and longer days.

The nation wants to build a moon base by 2045, The Korea Times reported on Thursday (July 17), citing a long-term exploration road map that the Korea AeroSpace Administration (KASA) laid out that same day during a hearing at the National Research Foundation of Korea in Daejeon.

That road map "outlines five core missions, including low Earth orbit and microgravity exploration, lunar exploration, and solar and space science missions," The Korea Times wrote.

KASA, which was established just last year, aims to develop homegrown lunar landing and roving technology, as well as the ability to extract and exploit moon resources such as water ice.

Some of this work is already underway. For example, the Korea Institute of Geoscience and Mineral Resources recently deployed prototype lunar rovers in an abandoned coal mine, testing tech that could be used for space mining down the road.

And South Korea already has some experience at and around the moon. In August 2022, the nation launched its first moon probe — called the Korea Pathfinder Lunar Orbiter or Danuri — atop a SpaceX Falcon 9 rocket. Danuri reached lunar orbit four months later and is still going strong, studying the moon with its suite of instruments.

South Korea had already been aiming for the lunar surface; officials have said they want to put a robotic lander on the moon by 2032. But the newly revealed road map ups the ante. The nation plans to develop a new, presumably more capable moon lander by 2040, "with the goal of building a lunar economic base by 2045," The Korea Times wrote.

South Korea isn't the only nation with moon-base ambitions. The United States also plans to build one or more lunar outposts in the next decade or so, via NASA's Artemis program. China is working toward the goal as well, in partnership with Russia and other nations. And India has said it wants to build a moon base by 2047.

The moon isn't KASA's only distant destination, by the way; the agency also wants to pull off South Korea's first-ever Mars landing by 2045.

As interest in human missions to Mars grows, scientists are focusing on how to sustain life in space without constant resupply from Earth. A team of researchers led by Robin Wordsworth of Harvard University demonstrated that green algae can not only survive but thrive inside bioplastic chambers designed to mimic the extreme environment of the Red Planet.

"If you have a habitat that is composed of bioplastic, and it grows algae within it, that algae could produce more bioplastic," Wordsworth said in a statement. "So you start to have a closed-loop system that can sustain itself and even grow through time."

In laboratory tests, Wordsworth and his team cultivated a common type of green algae called Dunaliella tertiolecta inside a 3D-printed chamber made from polylactic acid, which is a biodegradable plastic derived from natural sources. The chamber was engineered to replicate the thin, carbon dioxide–rich atmosphere of Mars, which has a surface pressure less than 1% that of Earth.

Despite these extreme conditions, the algae were able to perform photosynthesis, according to the statement.

"We have demonstrated that habitable conditions can be maintained in extraterrestrial environments using only biologically produced materials," the researchers wrote in a paper published earlier this month in the journal Science Advances. "The results reported here represent an important step forward, but many additional steps are needed to enable robust ecosystems to be sustained long-term beyond Earth."

Wordsworth and his team attribute the experiment’s success to the bioplastic chamber, which shielded the algae from harmful ultraviolet radiation while still allowing sufficient light to penetrate. Though liquid water cannot normally exist at such low pressures, the team created a pressure gradient within the chamber that stabilized liquid water, enabling biological activity.

The results suggest that bioplastics could be a viable material for constructing habitats on Mars and other celestial bodies, scientists say. Unlike conventional industrial materials, which are expensive to transport and difficult to recycle off-Earth, bioplastics can potentially be produced and reused on-site using biological processes, according to the statement.

The latest proof of concept experiment builds on earlier work by Wordsworth’s team, which showed that silica aerogels could replicate Earth’s greenhouse effect to support life in cold, low-pressure environments. By combining algae chambers for bioplastic production with aerogels for heat and pressure regulation, the researchers say they are making real progress toward self-sustaining space habitats.

Next, the team plans to test their bioplastic systems in vacuum conditions relevant to moon and deep-space missions.

"The concept of biomaterial habitats is fundamentally interesting and can support humans living in space," Wordsworth said in the statement.

"As this type of technology develops, it's going to have spinoff benefits for sustainability technology here on Earth as well."

Recent research has suggested that Roman, currently set to launch no later than May 2027, will discover as many as 100,000 powerful cosmic explosions as it conducts the High-Latitude Time-Domain Survey observation program.

These powerful and violent events will include supernovas that signal the deaths of massive stars, kilonovas, which happen when two of the universe's most extreme dead stars, or "neutron stars," slam together, and "burps" of feeding supermassive black holes. Roman could even detect the explosive destruction of the universe's first generation of stars.

These explosions could help scientists crack the mystery of dark energy, the placeholder name for the strange force that is causing the expansion of the universe to accelerate, and a multitude of other cosmic conundrums.

"Whether you want to explore dark energy, dying stars, galactic powerhouses, or probably even entirely new things we’ve never seen before, this survey will be a gold mine," research leader Benjamin Rose, an assistant professor at Baylor University, said in a statement.

Roman will hunt white dwarfs that go boom!

The High-Latitude Time-Domain Survey will obtain its explosive results by scanning the same large region of space every five days for a period of two years.

These observations will then be "stitched together" to create movies revealing a wealth of cosmic explosions.

Many of these will be Type Ia supernovas, a type of cosmic explosion that occurs when a "dead star" or white dwarf feeds on a companion star so ravenously that it blows its top.

These cosmic explosions are vital to astronomers because their light output and peak brightness are so regular from event to event that they can be used to measure cosmic distances. This regularity means astronomers refer to Type Ia supernovas as "standard candles."

This new research, which simulated Roman's entire High-Latitude Time-Domain Survey, suggests the space telescope could reveal up to 27,000 new Type Ia supernovas. That is about 10 times as many of these white dwarf destroying explosions as the combined harvest of all previous surveys.

By looking at standard candles across differing vast distances, astronomers are essentially looking back into cosmic time, and that allows them to determine how fast the universe was expanding at these times.

Thus, such a wealth of Type Ia supernovas should reveal hints at the secrets of dark energy. This could help verify recent findings from the Dark Energy Spectroscopic Instrument (DESI) that suggest this strange force is actually weakening over time.

"Filling these data gaps could also fill in gaps in our understanding of dark energy," Rose explained. "Evidence is mounting that dark energy has changed over time, and Roman will help us understand that change by exploring cosmic history in ways other telescopes can't."

Dying stars tell the tale of the stellar life cycle

The team estimates that as many as 60,000 of the 100,000 cosmic explosions that could be detected by Roman will be so-called "core collapse supernovas."

These occur when massive stars at least 8 times heavier than the sun reach the end of their nuclear fuel and can no longer support themselves against gravitational collapse.

As these stars' cores rapidly collapse, the outer layers are blasted away in supernovas, spreading the elements forged by these stars through the cosmos to become the building blocks of the next generation of stars, their planets, and maybe even lifeforms dwelling on said planets. Core collapse supernovas leave behind either neutron stars or black holes, depending on the mass of the progenitor star.

This means that while they can't help unravel the mystery of dark energy like Type Ia supernovas may, they can tell the tale of stellar life and death.

"By seeing the way an object's light changes over time and splitting it into spectra — individual colors with patterns that reveal information about the object that emitted the light—we can distinguish between all the different types of flashes Roman will see," research team member Rebekah Hounsell from NASA’s Goddard Space Flight Center explained. "With the dataset we've created, scientists can train machine-learning algorithms to distinguish between different types of objects and sift through Roman's downpour of data to find them.

"While searching for Type Ia supernovas, Roman is going to collect a lot of cosmic 'bycatch'—other phenomena that aren't useful to some scientists, but will be invaluable to others."

Rare cosmic gems and pure gold kilonovas

One of the rarer events that Roman could also detect occurs when black holes devour unfortunate stars that wander too close to them.

During these tidal disruption events (TDEs), the doomed star is ripped apart by the tremendous gravitational influence of the black hole via the immense tidal forces it generates.

Though much of the star is consumed by the black hole, these cosmic titans are messy eaters, meaning the vast amount of that stellar material is vomited out at velocities approaching the speed of light.

This jet of matter and the stellar material of the destroyed star that settles around the black hole in a flattened swirling cloud called an accretion disk generate emissions across the electromagnetic spectrum.

Roman will hunt these emissions to detect TDEs, with this team predicting that the High-Latitude Time-Domain Survey will turn up around 40 of these star-destroying events.

Even more elusive than TDEs are kilonovas, explosive bursts of light that occur when two neutron stars smash together and merge.

The team estimates that Roman could uncover around 5 new kilonovas, and while this is a small harvest, these observations could be vital to understanding where precious metals like gold and silver come from.

Though most of the elements we see around us are generated at the heart of stars, even these stellar furnaces lack the pressures and temperatures needed to form elements heavier than iron. The environments around neutron star collisions are thought to be the only furnaces in the cosmos extreme enough to generate elements like gold, silver and plutonium.

These would start life as even heavier elements that are unstable and rapidly decay. This decay releases the light seen as kilonovas, and thus studying that light is vital to understanding that process.

The study of kilonovas could also help determine what types of celestial bodies are created when neutron stars merge. This could be an even larger neutron star that rapidly collapses into a black hole, an immediately formed black hole, or something entirely new and unthought of.

Thus far, astronomers have only definitively confirmed the detection of one kilonova, meaning even another five would be a real boon to science.

Roman looks for instability in the first stars

Perhaps the most exciting cosmic explosion discovery that Roman could make would be the observation of the strange explosive death of the universe's first stars.

Currently, it is theorized that these early massive stars may have died differently than modern stars.

Rather than undergoing the core collapse described above, gamma-rays within the first stars could have generated matter-antimatter pairs in the form of electrons and positrons. These particles would meet and annihilate each other within the star, and this would release energy, resulting in a self-detonation called a "pair-instability supernova.”

These blasts are so powerful that it is theorized that they leave nothing behind, barring the fingerprint of elements generated during that star's lifetime.

As of yet, astronomers have dozens of candidates for pair-instability supernovas, but none have been confirmed. The team's simulation suggests that Roman could turn up as many as ten confirmed pair-instability supernovas.

"I think Roman will make the first confirmed detection of a pair-instability supernova," Rose said. "They're incredibly far away and very rare, so you need a telescope that can survey a lot of the sky at a deep exposure level in near-infrared light, and that's Roman."

The team intends to perform a further simulation of Roman's study of the cosmos, which could indicate its capability to spot and even wider array of powerful and violent events, maybe even some that haven't yet been theorized.

"Roman's going to find a whole bunch of weird and wonderful things out in space, including some we haven't even thought of yet," Hounsell concluded. "We're definitely expecting the unexpected."

This research was published on Tuesday (July 15) in The Astrophysical Journal.

NASA's Tandem Reconnection and Cusp Electrodynamics Reconnaissance Satellites, or TRACERS for short, mission represents a pair of satellites that will fly in a sun-synchronous orbit — meaning they are always over the dayside of the Earth — and pass through the polar cusps. The cusps are, in essence, two holes in Earth's magnetosphere, where the field lines dip down onto the magnetic poles.

When an influx of solar wind particles slam into Earth's magnetosphere, they can overload the magnetic-field lines, causing them to snap, disconnect and then reconnect. Magnetic reconnection, as the process is called, can release energy that accelerates charged particles down the funnel-shaped cusps and into our atmosphere, where they collide with molecules and, if a solar storm is intense enough, generate auroral lights.

When TRACERS launches — expected to be no earlier than late July — it will seek to learn more about the magnetic-reconnection process and how space weather affects our planet.

"What we'll learn from TRACERS is critical for understanding, and eventually predicting, how energy from our sun impacts not only the Earth, but also our space- and ground-based assets, whether it be GPS or communications signals, power grids, space assets or our astronauts working in space," said Joe Westlake, Director of NASA's Heliophysics Division, in a NASA teleconference.

Historically, the problem in studying magnetic reconnection has been that when a satellite flies through the region of reconnection and captures data, all it sees is a snapshot. Then, 90 minutes or so later on its next orbit, it takes another snapshot. In that elapsed time, the region may have changed, but it's impossible to tell from those snapshots why it's different. It could be because the system itself is changing, or the magnetic-reconnection coupling process between the solar wind and Earth's magnetosphere is moving about — or maybe it is switching on and off.

"These are fundamental things that we need to understand," said TRACERS' principal investigator, David Miles of the University of Iowa, in the same teleconference.

That's why TRACERS is important, because it is two satellites working in tandem rather than being a lone magnetic explorer.

"They're going to follow each other at a very close separation," said Miles. "So, one spacecraft goes through, and within two minutes the second spacecraft comes through, and that gives us two closely spaced measurements."

Together, the twin spacecraft will measure the magnetic- and electric-field strengths where magnetic reconnection is taking place, as well as what the local ions and electrons trapped in the magnetosphere are doing.

"What TRACERS is going to study is how the output of the sun couples to near-Earth space," said Miles. "What we're looking to understand is how the coupling between those systems changes in space and in time."

TRACERS will not be alone out there, and will be able to work with other missions already in operation, such as NASA's Magnetospheric Multiscale Mission (MMM), that studies reconnection from farther afield than TRACERS' low-Earth orbit 590 kilometers above our heads. There's also NASA's Polarimeter to Unify the Corona and Heliosphere (PUNCH) mission, and the Electrojet Zeeman Imaging Explorer (EZIE), which both study solar-wind interactions with our planet from low-Earth orbit.

"TRACERS joins the fleet of current heliophysics missions that are actively increasing our understanding of the sun, space weather, and how to mitigate its impacts," said Westlake.

The $170 million TRACERS is set to launch no earlier than the end of July on a SpaceX Falcon 9 rocket that will be carrying several other small missions into orbit at the same time. The answers that TRACERS could provide about how magnetic reconnection works will allow scientists to better protect critical infrastructure for when solar storms hit.

"It's going to help us keep our way of life safe here on Earth," said Westlake.

The object, designated 2020 VN40, is part of a family of distant solar system objects called trans-Neptunian objects (TNOs). 2020 VN40 is the first object discovered that orbits the sun once for every ten orbits Neptune makes. Considering that one Neptunian year lasts 164.8 Earth years, that means 2020 VN40 has one heck of a long year, lasting around 1,648 years or 19,776 months on Earth!

The team behind this research thinks that 2020 VN40's ponderous orbital dance with Neptune may have come about when it was temporarily snared by the gravity of the ice giant planet. Thus, this discovery could help researchers better understand the dynamics of bodies at the edge of the solar system.

"This is a big step in understanding the outer solar system," team leader Rosemary Pike from the Center for Astrophysics | Harvard & Smithsonian said in a statement. "It shows that even very distant regions influenced by Neptune can contain objects, and it gives us new clues about how the solar system evolved."

The orbital rhythm of 2020 VN40 was discovered in data from the Large inclination Distant Objects (LiDO) survey. LiDO uses the Canada-France-Hawaii Telescope with backup from the Gemini Observatory and the Walter Baade Telescope to search the outer solar system for weird objects.

In particular, LiDO specializes in hunting TNOs with orbits that take them far above and below the orbital plane of Earth around the sun. These are regions of the solar system that have thus far only been sparsely explored by astronomers.

"It has been fascinating to learn how many small bodies in the solar system exist on these very large, very tilted orbits," LiDO team member and University of Regina researcher Samantha Lawler said.

The highly tilted path of 2020 VN40 finds it at an average distance from the sun equivalent to 140 times the distance between Earth and our star.

However, the most interesting element of the orbit of 2020 VN40 is its resonance with the orbit of Neptune. Other bodies rhythmically aligned with Neptune make their closest approaches to the sun, their perihelion, when Neptune is at its greatest distance from our star, or its aphelion.

Defying this trend, 2020 VN40 is at perihelion when Neptune is also close to the sun. That's if one were looking at it from above the solar system, with the tilt of 2020 VN40 meaning that this TNO and Neptune are not actually close together; the TNO is actually far below the solar system.

This also separates 2020 VN40 from other resonant TNOs, which tend to stay within the plane of the solar system when they make close approaches to the sun.

"This new motion is like finding a hidden rhythm in a song we thought we knew," team member and University of California Santa Cruz scientist Ruth Murray-Clay said. "It could change how we think about the way distant objects move."

Revealing the orbital strangeness of 2020 VN40 suggests that solar system objects with highly tilted orbits can adopt novel and unexpected types of movement.

The hunt is now on for more bodies like 2020 VN40, with the newly operating Vera C. Rubin Observatory set to play a key role in this investigation.

"This is just the beginning," team member and Planetary Science Institute researcher Kathryn Volk said. "We're opening a new window into the solar system's past."

The 2020 VN40 results were published on July 7 in The Planetary Science Journal.

CHIME J1634+44, also known as ILT J163430+445010 (J1634+44), is part of a class of objects called Long Period Radio Transients (LPTs). LPTs are a newly found and mysterious type of celestial body that emits bursts of radio waves that repeat on timescales of minutes to hours. That's significantly longer than the emission of standard pulsars, or rapidly spinning neutron star stellar remains that sweep beams of radiation across the cosmos as they spin.

But as strange as all LPTs are, CHIME J1634+44 still stands out. Not only is it the brightest LPT ever seen, but it is also the most polarized. Additionally, its pulses of radiation seem highly choreographed. And what really stands out about CHIME J1634+44 is the fact that it is the only LPT astronomers have ever seen whose spin is speeding up.

"You could call CHIME J1634+44 a 'unicorn' even among other LPTs. The bursts seem to repeat either every 14 minutes or 841 seconds — but there is a distinct secondary period of 4206 seconds, or 70 minutes, which is exactly five times longer," team leader Fengqiu Adam Dong, a Jansky Fellow at the Green Bank Observatory (GBO), said in a statement. "We think both are real, and this is likely a system with something orbiting a neutron star."

The team discovered the unusual traits of CHIME J1634+44 using ground-based instruments including the Green Bank Telescope, the Very Large Array (VLA), the Canadian Hydrogen Intensity Mapping Experiment (CHIME) Fast Radio Burst and Pulsar Project, the NASA-operated space-based observatory, and the Neil Gehrels Swift Observatory (Swift). The object was, in fact, simultaneously discovered by a separate team of astronomers at ASTRON, the Netherlands Institute for Radio Astronomy, using the LOFAR (Low Frequency Array) radio telescope.

While the team led by Dong believes a stellar remnant at the heart of CHIME J1634+44 is a neutron star, the ASTRON team, captained by astronomer Sanne Bloot, refers to it as J1634+44 and think it is a white dwarf. What both teams agree on, though, is just how strange this LPT is.

This unicorn is speeding up by feeding on a star

Both white dwarfs and neutron stars are dead stars created when stars of differing masses run out of the fuel supplies they need for nuclear fusion at their cores. Once that fuel is over, the stars can no longer support themselves against their own immense gravities.

Neutron stars are stellar remnants that form when massive stars, with masses at least eight times that of the sun, reach the end of their lives and collapse. Smaller stars closer in mass to the sun leave behind a slightly less extreme stellar remnant called a "white dwarf."

Though most of the mass of these dying massive stars is shed in supernova explosions, the cores of the stars maintain a mass between one and two times that of the sun. This is crushed down to a width of around 12 miles (20 kilometers), creating matter so dense that if a teaspoon of neutron star "stuff" were scooped out and brought to Earth, it would weigh 10 million tons (equal to stacking 85,000 blue whales on a teaspoon).

This collapse has another extreme consequence. The dying star maintains its angular momentum, meaning that when its radius is rapidly reduced during collapse, it speeds up greatly. Though the collapse of white dwarfs is less extreme, it also causes an increase in spin speed due to the conservation of angular momentum.

An Earth-based example of this is an ice skater pulling in their arms to increase the speed of their spin.

What this means is some young neutron stars can spin as fast as 700 times every second. However, as neutron stars and white dwarfs age, they should slow down as they lose energy. That's why no matter what CHIME J1634+44 is, the fact that it is speeding up its spin is very strange.

There is a way neutron stars or white dwarfs can increase their spin speed, or "spin up" after their birth. It depends on whether they have a close companion star.

As such, the new study's team suspects CHIME J1634+44 may actually be composed of two stellar objects orbiting each other in a tight binary format. The ASTRON team proposes that this companion is either another stellar remnant (like a white dwarf or neutron star) or is a "failed star" brown dwarf — a body that forms like a star but fails to gather enough mass to trigger the nuclear fusion that defines what a star is.

As these bodies swirl around each other, they would emit ripples in spacetime called gravitational waves. This carries away angular momentum and causes the two stellar bodies to move closer together. This would cause the period of the binary to appear as if it is shortening. This type of orbital tightening has been witnessed before by astronomers in white dwarf binaries.

CHIME J1634+44 gets stranger, however.

Its radio bursts are 100% circularly polarized. This means the electromagnetic waves escaping J1634+44 rotate in a circle (like a corkscrew) as they propagate.

Thus, the electromagnetic radiation escaping CHIME J1634+44 twists around in a perfect spiral as it moves away from its source. Not only is that extremely rare, but it is something that has never been seen in bursts of radiation from either neutron stars or white dwarfs.

That implies the radio wave blasts of CHIME J1634+44 are being generated in a way that is unique for this dead star.

Astronomers have a mystery on their hands with this dead star

What is also weird about these pulses is the fact that they arrive in pairs, but only when the dead star in the CHIME J1634+44 binary has spun several times without emitting a burst.

"The time between pulse pairs seems to follow a choreographed pattern," team member and ASTRON astronomer Harish Vedantham said in a statement. "We think the pattern holds crucial information about how the companion triggers the white dwarf to emit radio waves.

"Continued monitoring should help us decode this behavior, but for now, we have a real mystery on our hands."

The research conducted by these astronomers not only reveals more about neutron stars, the universe's most extreme stellar objects, but also hints at an exciting new phase for radio astronomy.

"The discovery of CHIME J1634+44 expands the known population of LPTs and challenges existing models of neutron stars and white dwarfs, suggesting there may be many more such objects awaiting discovery," Dong concluded.

Both teams' research was published on Thursday (July 17) in the journal Astronomy & Astrophysics.

Geologists studying driftwood and lake sediments found in Stanton's Cave — in Marble Canyon, which lies in the eastern part of the Grand Canyon — revealed a possible connection between the area and the famous impact site known as Meteor Crater (also called Barringer Crater) in northern Arizona.

Through excavation and multiple rounds of radiocarbon dating, researchers determined the driftwood is about 56,000 years old. Yet today, the mouth of Stanton's Cave sits 150 feet (46 meters) above the Colorado River. A new study suggests the wood was carried there by an ancient paleolake, formed when a massive landslide dammed the river.

"It would have required a 10-times-bigger flood level than any flood that has happened in the past several thousand years," Karl Karlstrom, co-lead author of the study and an Earth and planetary science professor at the University of New Mexico, said in a statement from the university.

The study claims that the strike that created Meteor Crater could be linked to a paleolake — an ancient lake that existed in the past but has since dried up — in the Grand Canyon that formed at the same time. The impact would have generated an earthquake around magnitude 5.4 to 6, which could have sent a shock wave powerful enough to shake loose unstable cliffs in the Grand Canyon 100 miles (161 kilometers) away and trigger a massive landslide. That event, in turn, could have deposited enough debris to dam the river and form a lake.

Other caves high above the river have also been explored for clues about the canyon's geological past. In addition to the driftwood, ancient beaver tracks have been found in areas that would be inaccessible to the water-dwelling animals today, further supporting the idea that a paleolake once existed in the area.

With driftwood and sediment samples found in many caves as high up as 3,084 feet (940 m), the researchers estimate the paleolake would have been about 50 miles (80 km) long and nearly 300 feet (91 m) deep. Over time, the dam that blocked the Colorado River could have been overtopped and deeply eroded, eventually filling up with sediment.

While there is evidence linking the paleolake, the meteorite impact and resulting landslide, the researchers noted that further study is required to eliminate any other possible explanations for the river damming, such as random rockfall or a more local earthquake around the same time.

Their findings were published July 15 in the journal Geology.

A comet, now known as 3I/ATLAS, with 3I short for "third interstellar," sparked immediate excitement on July 1 when it was detected by the Deep Random Survey remote telescope in Chile, exhibiting a hyperbolic and highly eccentric orbit.

It is the third confirmed interstellar visitor, following 1I'Oumuamua in 2017 and 2I/Borisov in 2019. But fleeting visits of high-speed guests from outside our solar system are likely to be detected much more regularly now, thanks to the new Vera C. Rubin Observatory.

The Rubin observatory is located on the mountain of Cerro Pachón in Chile, and saw first light in June after a decade of construction. While it is only in its early commissioning phase, in just 10 hours of observations, Rubin discovered 2,104 new asteroids. Its science objectives include understanding the structure and evolution of the universe, mapping the Milky Way and observing transient astronomical events, but it is also set to revolutionize the detection of interstellar objects (ISOs).

This is thanks to Rubin's gigantic Large Synoptic Survey Telescope (LSST) camera— the largest digital camera ever constructed for astronomy, with a staggering 3.2 gigapixels. LSST will scan giant swaths of the sky at once and observe the entire southern sky every few nights. Due to its wide field, depth, and how frequently it observes the same regions of sky, Rubin is uniquely capable of catching fast, faint objects like 1I/'Oumuamua or 3I/ATLAS.

ISOs like 1I/'Oumuamua or 3I/ATLAS move quickly and can easily pass through our sky unnoticed if the sky is not being scanned often and everywhere. Rubin will be looking constantly and broadly, giving astronomers the best chance yet to catch these fleeting visitors, while also being able to detect objects fainter than nearly any ground-based survey before it. Rubin's powerful imaging and automatic image comparison, coupled with an automated alert system — with millions triggered and filtered every night — means it will pick up telltale motion and flag a potential ISO.

So how many interstellar objects might Rubin actually detect? The answer varies widely depending on which assumptions scientists use.

We are in the early days of detecting ISOs, so it is difficult to estimate how many Rubin is likely to pick up; we know little about their overall frequency, size range, brightness, if they exhibit cometary activity, and how LSST performs.

However, a few recent papers on the topic provide some useful context for how many ISOs LSST might be able to detect, depending on a range of variables.

In a 2022 paper, Hoover et al. estimate that LSST will detect on the order of between 0.9-1.9 ISOs every year, or around 15 such objects across Rubin's 10-year observational campaign. It notes that these are lower limits, which can be updated when there is more data on the number density and size frequency of interstellar objects.

Additionally, Hoover et al. estimate the chances that Rubin will find an ISO reachable by the Comet Interceptor and Bridge mission concepts, which would fly by an interstellar object as it passes through our solar system. These missions would be launched to lurk in wait, ready to intercept and rendezvous with a passing ISO. The researchers concluded that there is just a roughly 0.07% chance that LSST would identify an ISO target available to Comet Interceptor, which has limited capability to change its velocity, while LSST could detect around three to seven ISOs reachable by Bridge, a more capable but yet-to-be-approved mission concept.

Another estimate, from a 2023 paper by Ezell and Loeb, expects LSST to detect one small ISO 3 to 164 feet (1 to 50 meters) wide every one to two years.

A more optimistic assessment comes from Marceta and Seligman in a 2023 paper. They find, based on a simulated suite of galactic populations of asteroidal interstellar objects and their trajectories and kinematics, that Rubin should detect between around 0 and 70 asteroidal interstellar objects every year. Again, one of the main factors is how many objects of different sizes actually exist in the population of ISOs, as well as their albedo, or how much light they reflect.

With just three confirmed interstellar visitors so far, much remains unknown about the number, size, and diversity of ISOs. But with the Rubin Observatory coming online, sightings of these fast-moving cosmic messengers may soon shift from rare events to regular science, offering unique insights into the galaxy beyond our solar system.

Using NASA's Chandra X-ray spacecraft, astronomers have witnessed a distant, Jupiter-size world "shrinking" as its host star bombards it with heavy radiation.

The extrasolar planet, or "exoplanet," is named TOI 1227 b and is a cosmic baby at just 8 million years old (remember, Earth is around 4.5 billion years old). And, incredibly, the world orbits its star at a distance of just 8.2 million miles, a fraction of the distance between the sun and Mercury, with a year that lasts just 28 days. This proximity means the star, named TOI 1227 and located around 330 light-years away, is blasting the planet with powerful X-rays.

This radiation is stripping the exoplanet's atmosphere away; in fact, the atmosphere of TOI 1227 b is likely to be completely gone in around 1 billion years. This will reduce the exoplanet to nothing more than a small, rocky and barren core.

The team behind this research estimates TOI 1227 b will have ultimately lost the equivalent of two Earths' worth of mass by the conclusion of its transformation. As of now, the world has a mass around 17 times that of Earth's.

"It's almost unfathomable to imagine what is happening to this planet," Attila Varga, study team leader and a researcher at the Rochester Institute of Technology (RIT), said in a statement. "The planet's atmosphere simply cannot withstand the high X-ray dose it’s receiving from its star."

While this exoplanet's parent star is less massive than the sun (with about 10% the mass of our star) and is cooler and fainter in optical light, it is actually brighter than our star in X-rays.

"A crucial part of understanding planets outside our solar system is to account for high-energy radiation like X-rays that they're receiving," team member and RIT scientist Joel Kastner said in the statement. "We think this planet is puffed up, or inflated, in large part as a result of the ongoing assault of X-rays from the star."

The team used Chandra to determine just how much X-ray radiation is roasting TOI 1227 b. The researchers then used computer modeling to assess the impact of this radiation on the exoplanet and its atmosphere. This revealed that roughly every two centuries, the world loses the equivalent of Earth's entire atmosphere from its own atmosphere.

"The future for this baby planet doesn't look great," Alexander Binks, a study team member and researcher at Eberhard Karls University of Tübingen, said in the statement. "From here, TOI 1227 b may shrink to about a tenth of its current size and will lose more than 10 percent of its weight."

The researchers estimated the age of TOI 1227 b using estimates of its host star's velocity through space and comparing them with the speed of nearby stellar populations with known ages. The team also compared the surface brightness of TOI 1227 with models of stellar evolution.

TOI 1227 b stands out from other exoplanets aged less than 50 million years because, among the set, it seems to have the longest year and a host star with the lowest mass.

The team's research has been accepted for publication in The Astrophysical Journal and appears as a preprint on the repository site arXiv.

What is it?

The two telescopes seen in this image are the U.S. Naval Observatory Deep South Telescope and the DIMM2 seeing monitor, both part of the Cerro Tololo Inter-American Observatory (CTIO), a program of the National Science Foundation's (NSF) NOIRLab.. Both help survey the night skies and provide a place for astronomers in the southern hemisphere to study the stunning and surprising structures in space.

Where is it?

Both telescopes are located 310 miles (500 km) north of Santiago, Chile, at an altitude of 7,200 feet (2,200 meters).

Why is it amazing?

Lunar eclipses are captivating to watch, as Earth passes directly between the sun and the moon, casting its shadow onto the surface of the moon. This only happens when the Earth, sun and moon are all perfectly aligned. According to NOIRLab, this alignment period was used by ancient astronomers as early as 600 BCE and called a "saros." The time between saros periods is around 18 years, 11 days, and 8 hours.

To get the full detail of a lunar eclipse, it helps to have binoculars or a telescope. Astrophotographers looking to upgrade their stargazing gear to capture lunar eclipses, should read our guide to the best cameras for capturing the night sky in 2025.

Want to learn more?

You can read more about lunar eclipses and the telescopes in Chile as researchers continue to study our night skies.

The extrasolar planet or "exoplanet" in question is TOI-2109b, which has five times the mass of Jupiter and is located around 870 light-years from our solar system. The planet orbits so close to its parent star, TOI-2109, that it has a year that lasts just 16 hours.

These characteristics mean that TOI-2109b is classified as an "ultrahot Jupiter," a rare class of planets that account for around 1 in 500 planets in the over 5,000 worlds in the catalog of known exoplanets. But TOI-2109b stands out even among those incredibly hot, star-hugging worlds.

"This is an ultra-hot Jupiter, and orbits much closer to its star than any other hot Jupiter ever discovered," Macquarie University Research Fellow Jaime A. Alvarado-Montes said in a statement."Just to put it into context, Mercury's mass is almost 6,000 times smaller than Jupiter's, but it still takes 88 days to orbit our sun.

"For a huge gas giant such as TOI-2109b to fully orbit in 16 hours, it tells us that this is a planet located super-close to its star."

That makes TOI-2109b the perfect laboratory to study planets' death spirals into their host stars, or more accurately, the phenomenon of orbital decay.

The three deaths of TOI-2109b

Alvarado-Montes and colleagues set about investigating TOI-2109b using archival data from multiple telescopes, including NASA's Transiting Exoplanet Survey Satellite (TESS) and the European Space Agency (ESA) space mission Cheops.

This constituted data regarding the transits of TOI-2109b across the face of its parent star from 2010 to 2024.

"Using all of the data available for this planet, we were able to predict a small change in its orbit," Alvarado-Montes said. "Then we verified it with our theory and with our planet evolution models, and our predictions matched the observations. That's quite exciting."

The matching theoretical estimations and observational evidence suggested that the orbit of TOI-2109b will decay by around 10 seconds over the next three Earth-years. Though this is a tiny change, it proves TOI-2109b is spiraling toward its parent star.

The ultimate fate of TOI-2109b is uncertain, as there are three possible ways that this death spiral could play out.

The first and most dramatic final fate of TOI-2109b would see the ultrahot Jupiter plunge into its parent star. This will occur if the orbital decay of this planet begins to accelerate.

"The star will absorb it and kill it, of course, in the process – completely burn it, and the planet will disappear," Alvarado-Montes said.

This would create a flash of light that is similar to ZTF SLRN-2020, a signal first observed in May 2020 when a gas giant planet plunged into its red giant stellar parent.

The second possible fate of TOI-2109b is slightly less dramatic, but no less catastrophic.

This would happen if the orbital decay of the planet continues unabated and sees the gravity of its parent star generate destructive tidal forces within the planet. These forces would literally rip TOI-2109b apart.

"The gravitational interactions are so strong that the planet starts being distorted," Alvarado-Montes said. "It starts looking more like an elongated doughnut ... the gravity of the planet is no longer able to hold its spherical shape."

There is a third possible fate which would see the planet transformed rather than being destroyed.

In the third possible scenario for TOI-2109b, the intense radiation experienced by the ultrahot Jupiter strips away the planet's gassy outer layers in a process called photoevaporation. This would expose the rocky inner core of TOI-2109b.

"As the planet gets even closer to the star, all of the gas molecules could start being dissociated, and the planet gets smaller and smaller," Alvarado-Montes explained. "And if the planet shrinks quickly enough, then when the planet reaches the position where its Roche limit would have been, it's not going to be five Jupiter masses anymore, but it will be small enough that the Roche limit moves closer to the star, so it could escape destruction."

This could ultimately result in the creation of a rocky "super-Earth" around the size of Uranus or Neptune.

The team will continue to monitor TOI-2109b over the next three to five years, which should reveal the fate that will befall this doomed world.

The investigation of TOI-2109b has implications beyond its own fascinating and fateful situation. It provides astronomers the chance to study how hot Jupiters evolve and what happens when planets migrate toward their host stars.

"This planet and its interesting situation could help us figure out some mysterious astronomical phenomena that so far we really don't have much evidence to explain," Alvarado-Montes concludes. "It could tell us the story of many other solar systems."

The team's research was published on Tuesday (July 15) in The Astrophysical Journal.

This is the conclusion of a team of scientists from China who have found a one-step method of doing all this. Whether it is economically viable, however, is up for debate.

But the Chinese team thinks that it is. "The biggest surprise for us was the tangible success of this integrated approach," said team-member Lu Wang, who is a chemist from the Chinese University of Hong Kong, in a statement. "The one-step integration of lunar water extraction and photothermal carbon dioxide catalysis could enhance energy utilization efficiency and decrease the cost and complexity of infrastructure development."

They point out that studies have shown that transporting supplies from Earth to any future moon base would be expensive because the greater the mass of cargo, the harder a rocket has to work to launch into space. Studies have indicated that it would cost $83,000 to transport just one gallon of water from Earth to the moon, and yet each astronaut would be expected to drink 4 gallons of water per day.

Fortunately, the moon has plentiful water, although it is not automatically apparent. Brought to the moon by impacts of comets, asteroids and micrometeoroids, and even by the solar wind, water lurks in permanently shadowed craters at the lunar poles, trapped within minerals such as ilmenite.

Extracting the water for drinking is relatively easy and there are numerous technologies that describe how this can be done, including heating the regolith by focusing sunlight onto it. However, the Chinese team has been able to take this one step further.

"What's novel here is the use of lunar soil as a catalyst to crack carbon dioxide molecules and combine them with extracted water to produce methane," Philip Metzger, a planetary physicist from the University of Central Florida, told Space.com. Metzger was not involved in the new research, but he is the co-founder of the NASA Kennedy Space Center's 'Swamp Works', a research lab for designing technologies for construction, manufacturing and mining on planetary (and lunar) surfaces.

Methane would be more desirable than liquid hydrogen as a potential rocket fuel because it is easier to keep stable, thereby requiring less machinery and less cost to keep on the moon. Liquid methane, when mixed with oxygen as an oxidizer, is a potent rocket fuel. Many commercial companies such as China's Landspace are already launching methane-powered rockets.

The water-bearing ilmenite is also a useful catalyst for reacting the water with carbon dioxide to produce oxygen and methane, and the Chinese team have developed a one-step process for doing so. First, they heat the regolith to 392 degrees Fahrenheit (200 degrees Celsius) by focusing sunlight to release the water inside. Then, carbon dioxide such as that which could be breathed out by astronauts is added to the mix, causing the ilmenite to catalyze the reaction between the extracted water and the carbon dioxide. Researchers tested this process, known as photothermal catalysis, in the laboratory using a simulant based on samples of lunar regolith returned to Earth by China's Chang'e 5 mission (the lunar samples are far too previous to destroy in such experiments, which is why a simulant is used instead).

While previous technologies have also been able to accomplish this, they required more steps and more machinery, and used a catalyst that would have to be transported up from Earth. This, the research team believe, makes their process more efficient and less expensive than the alternatives.

However, Metzger is not wholly confident that it will work. For one thing, lunar regolith is a proficient thermal insulator, so heating a sample all the way through would not be easy.

"The heat does not spread effectively deeper into the soil, and this greatly reduces the amount of water that can be produced in a given time," Metzger said. One option could be to 'tumble' the regolith, turning it over repeatedly so that the heat is more evenly applied, but this slows the extraction of water and increases the mechanical complexity of the process. In an environment where lunar dust gets into every nook and cranny, and where temperature fluctuations between night and day can be as great as 482 degrees Fahrenheit (250 Celsius), the risk of breakdown only increases as more moving parts enter the equation.

"It may be doable, but more maturation of the technology is needed to show that it is actually competitive," said Metzger.

There's also a problem with the application of carbon dioxide, something recognized by both the Chinese team and Metzger. Specifically, there's a question mark over whether astronauts could produce enough carbon dioxide through their normal exhalation. Metzger calculates that astronauts could only provide a tenth of the carbon dioxide required. Alternatively, carbon dioxide could be shuttled up from Earth, but this would rather defeat the purpose of the proposed technique, which was to develop a lot-cost means of obtaining water, oxygen and methane with resources largely already available on the moon.

However, in the long-run, perhaps shipping some materials up from Earth will be beneficial. Metzger points out a similar experiment that used an exotic granular catalyst – nickel-on-kieselguhr (kieselguhr is a kind of sedimentary rock) – rather than lunar regolith. Metzger suspects that a material specifically designed to be a catalyst, such as nickel-on-kieselguhr, would be more efficient than lunar regolith. Plus, although it would be expensive to transport from Earth, the nickel-on-kieselguhr can be re-used so you would only need to transport it to the moon once. In a cost-benefit analysis, in the long term it might be more efficient to do this instead.

Regardless, the research team has convincingly shown that using lunar regolith as a catalyst to produce fuel and water works. The next step is to show that the technology can be scaled up to sustain a base on the moon more efficiently than other techniques, and that it can operate in lunar conditions where the gravity is weaker, the temperature swings to large extremes, and there is intense radiation from space.

"I think these are highly interesting results and there may be additional applications to use lunar soil as a photocatalyst," said Metzger. "More work will be needed to show whether this concept can be economically competitive. I am skeptical, but all good ideas have their detractors and you can never really know until somebody does the work to prove it."

There is certainly no immediate rush for the technology. With NASA's Artemis III mission, which aims to finally return astronauts to the surface of the moon in 2027 at the earliest, and funding made available for Artemis IV and V at some indeterminate time in the future, we're not yet in a position to build a permanent lunar base.

However, the Artemis missions are the perfect opportunity to trial some of these technologies and will be greatly important for showing whether we really can live on the moon or not.

The research was published on July 16 in the journal Joule.

China has taken a new step in its long-term planning for lunar exploration with the completion of a "simulated moon underground space."

Researchers have established a practice area in a volcanic lava cave in a forest region near Jingbo Lake in Mudanjiang City, located in the northeastern province of Heilongjiang. The move is in response to research suggesting that lava tube systems are present on the moon and Mars and could provide shielding from those worlds' harsh radiation environments.

"The underground volcanic lava pipes by the Jingbo Lake are the most similar environment on Earth to the underground space of the moon. I hope our forward-looking research can serve China's lunar exploration program," Li Jiaqi, a researcher at Peking University, told China Central Television (CCTV).

Experimental robots are already being used to test conducting autonomous exploration and multi-functional operations in the simulated lunar environment.

"Compared with traditional lunar roving vehicles and exploration robots, it has stronger environmental adaptability and flexibility," said Li Xianglong, a doctoral student from the Harbin Institute of Technology. "When exploring the underground space of the moon for the future, it can possess more precise perception, decision-making and operation capabilities."

Students also set up seismometers in the area to serve as a reference for future lunar experiments. China's Chang'e 7 mission to the lunar south pole, set to launch sometime in 2026, will carry a seismograph to study the moon's interior and detect moonquakes, caused by tidal forces from Earth, and temperature changes affecting the lunar surface. China plans to establish an International Lunar Research Station (ILRS) in the 2030s.

The 311-gram space rock was discovered in 2023 and is known as the Northwest Africa 16286 meteorite — and based on the decay of the lead isotopes that it contains, its formation has been dated to about 2.35 billion years ago.

"Its age and composition show that volcanic activity continued on the moon throughout this timespan, and our analysis suggests an ongoing heat-generation process within the moon, potentially from radiogenic elements decaying and producing heat over a long period," said lead researcher Joshua Snape of the University of Manchester in a statement.

The meteorite is an important piece in the jigsaw that is the moon's history, filling-in an almost billion-year-long gap in our knowledge. The meteorite is much younger than samples brought back to Earth by NASA's Apollo missions, the Soviet Union's Luna missions and China's Chang'e 6 mission, all of which range between 3.1 billion and 4.3 billion years old, but older than the 1.9-billion-year-old rocks returned by Chang'e 5.

Crucially, meteorite 16286 has a volcanic origin, with geochemical analysis showing that it formed when a lava flow from deep within the moon vented onto the surface and solidified. It contains relatively large crystals of a mineral called olivine, moderate levels of titanium and high levels of potassium. Its lead isotopes also point to a volcanic source deep underground that has an unusually high uranium-to-lead ratio (the lead being a decay product of uranium). This abundance of uranium, and the heat it produced as it underwent radioactive decay, is a potential clue as to what was keeping volcanism going a billion years after the moon's main bouts of volcanism had ceased.

There are only 31 volcanic lunar rocks that have been found on Earth in the form of meteorites, and meteorite 16286 is by far the youngest.

"Moon rocks are rare, so it's interesting when we get something that stands out and looks different to everything else," said Snape.

The meteorite is more evidence that volcanism continued throughout this period on the moon; Chang'e 5 has found such evidence in its samples from the moon's farside of volcanism in the past 123 million years. Together, these discoveries are transforming what we thought we thought we knew about the moon's volcanism and how the moon has remained geologically active, at least in bursts, almost to the present day.

The next step is to pinpoint the meteorite's origin on the moon: likely a crater blasted into the surface by an impact that ejected the meteorite long ago. Once identified, it will be a prime location for a future sample-return mission to learn more about lunar volcanism during this little-known period, from which so few samples exist.

Snape presented the findings at the world's premier geochemistry meeting, the Goldschmidt Conference in Prague held between July 6 and July 11.

Once every 15 years, Saturn's tilted orbit brings its iconic rings — and Titan's orbital path — into an edge-on alignment with Earth. This event, known as a ring-plane crossing, heralds the onset of a season of dramatic 'shadow transits', as Titan's vast umbral silhouette periodically sweeps across the gas giant's surface.

"Sighting a shadow transit of Titan for an amateur astronomer is somewhat the equivalent of a fisherman hooking and reeling in a particularly large or elusive fish," Hayden Planetarium instructor and lecturer Joe Rao told Space.com in an email. "It is so unusual a sight that doesn't happen very often, which is why even veteran skywatchers are excited at the possibility of making such a sighting."

When is Titan's shadow transit?

Titan's next shadow transit will get underway at 3 a.m. EDT (0700 GMT) on July 18, at which time the moon's dark outline will be visible slowly progressing across Saturn's cloudy disk, according to Sky and Telescope.

Look for Saturn in the southeastern sky, just below the stars of the constellation Pisces shining like a bright star to the naked eye, with the moon in the east.

Observers in the U.S. will have a good view of the first two hours of the shadow transit, but by the time Titan's shadow leaves Saturn's disk at 8:05 a.m. EDT (12:05 GMT), the brightening dawn will overpower the view.

How powerful does a telescope need to be to spot Titan's shadow?

At the time of the shadow transit, Titan and Saturn will be separated by approximately 846 million miles (1.36 billion kilometers) from Earth — far beyond the capabilities of the naked eye or binoculars, but well within reach of many amateur telescopes.

We asked Rao for guidance on the kind of scope needed to view Titan's shadow transit. "An 8-inch telescope at 200-power or a 10-inch telescope at 250-power should provide a good view of Titan's shadow, especially on a night of good seeing," Rao explained.

To calculate the magnifcation of your telescope, you need only divide its focal length by the focal length of your chosen eyepiece. For example, a 1000 mm telescope with a 10 mm eyepiece yields 100-power magnification.

Rao also emphasised that stable atmospheric conditions are crucial to obtaining a clear view. This becomes more important when using higher power with a smaller aperture scope. It's best to use one-half magnification/power when viewing distant objects to avoid them appearing to "boil", or "scintilate" when viewed through the eyepiece.

"At least 200-power is necessary for getting a reasonably good view of the dark 'shadow dot' projected on Saturn's disk," continued Rao. "The general rule of thumb is to utilize 50-power for every inch of aperture of the telescope objective, or mirror. So, for a 4-inch telescope, the maximum magnification to be used is 200-power, which is considered the limit for a telescope of that size."

When are the next Titan shadow transits?

After the July 18 event, five more Titan shadow transits will be visible from Earth. Each occurs roughly16 days after the last — a result of Titan's 16-day orbital period — and starting progressively earlier in the night for viewers in the U.S.

The next transit after this week will begin at 2:25 a.m. (0625 GMT) on August 3, while the last chance to catch the moon's shadow fall on Saturn will take place on October 6.

After the October event, stargazers will have to wait another 15 years before the next ring crossing brings Titan — and its shadow — into alignment once more!

Titan's shadow through the eyes of the Cassini spacecraft

Without question, the most spectacular views of a Titan shadow transit came courtesy of NASA's Cassini spacecraft, which witnessed the moon's dark outline fall over Saturn's cloud surface in November 2009, while it travelled a mere 1.3 million miles (2.1 million km) from the colossal gas giant. Cassini has long since found its resting place beneath the cloud surface of Saturn, but amateur astronomers will have an opportunity to follow in Cassini's steps later this week and witness the next Titan shadow transit for themselves when it takes place on July 18.

"Though we, living in the 21st century, have grown accustomed to seeing the Saturnian system through the eyes of Cassini, there still remains the thrill of witnessing, with one's own eyes, a major celestial event in the life of another planet a billion miles away," Carolyn Porco, planetary scientists and imaging team leader for NASA's Cassini mission told Space.com in an email.

Editor's Note: If you would like to share your images of the Titan shadow transit with Space.com's readers, then please send your photo(s), comments, and your name and location to spacephotos@space.com.

That's the theory of a team of researchers who looked at hundreds of extrasolar planets, or exoplanets, observed by NASA's Transiting Exoplanet Survey Satellite (TESS).

TESS hunts exoplanets by catching them as they cross the face of, or "transit," their parent star, which causes a tiny drop in light from that star. The study team discovered that light from stars neighboring the one being transited could "contaminate" TESS' data, making it look like the transiting planet is blocking less light than it actually is. And that would make the planet look smaller than it is.

"We found that hundreds of exoplanets are larger than they appear, and that shifts our understanding of exoplanets on a large scale," University of California, Irvine researcher and team leader Te Han said in a statement. "This means we may have actually found fewer Earth-like planets so far than we thought."

Exoplanets throw shade

Exoplanets are so distant and faint that it is only on rare occasions that astronomers can image them directly.

That means the transit method has become the most successful way of detecting worlds beyond the solar system. It requires the planet and its star to be at the right angle in relation to Earth, and for astronomers to wait for the planet to make two transits to confirm its existence.

The transit method is best at spotting short-period planets orbiting close to their host stars, because they make more frequent transits. The method also favors larger planets, which block more light.

"We’re basically measuring the shadow of the planet," said team member and UC Irvine astronomer Paul Robertson.

The team gathered hundreds of TESS observations of exoplanets, sorting them by the width of the exoplanets in question.

They then used computer modeling and data from the European Space Agency's (ESA) star-tracking mission Gaia to estimate how much light contamination TESS is experiencing during its observations.

"TESS data are contaminated, which Te's custom model corrects better than anyone else in the field," said Robertson. "What we find in this study is that these planets may systematically be larger than we initially thought. It raises the question: Just how common are Earth-sized planets?"

Move over Earth-like worlds: ocean planets could be more common

Because of the biases of the transit method mentioned above, the number of exoplanets detected with TESS having sizes and compositions similar to those of Earth was already low.

"Of the single-planet systems discovered by TESS so far, only three were thought to be similar to Earth in their composition," Han explained. "With this new finding, all of them are actually bigger than we thought."

The likely outcome of this is that those exoplanets are larger ocean planets or "hycean worlds" covered by a large single ocean. Those worlds could also be gas giants smaller than Jupiter, like Neptune and Uranus.

That impacts the search for life because, though hycean worlds are packed with water, they could be lacking other ingredients needed for life to arise.

"This has important implications for our understanding of exoplanets, including, among other things, prioritization for follow-up observations with the James Webb Space Telescope, and the controversial existence of a galactic population of water worlds," Roberston added.

The next step for Han, Roberston, and colleagues is to re-examine planets previously deemed uninhabitable due to their size, to see if they are larger than previously thought.

In the meantime, the research is a reminder to astronomers to be cautious when assessing TESS data.

The team's research was published on Monday (July 14) in the Astrophysical Journal Letters.

The Gemini North telescope in Hawai‘i captured the newfound comet passing through our cosmic neighborhood, about 290 million miles (465 million kilometers) from Earth.

3I/ATLAS was initially detected by ATLAS (Asteroid Terrestrial-impact Last Alert System) on July 1. It's just the third known interstellar object — meaning it originated outside of our solar system — according to a statement from the National Science Foundation (NSF) NOIRLab, which operates the International Gemini Observatory.

"The sensitivity and scheduling agility of the International Gemini Observatory has provided critical early characterization of this interstellar wanderer," Martin Still, NSF program director for the International Gemini Observatory, said in the statement. "We look forward to a bounty of new data and insights as this object warms itself on sunlight before continuing its cold, dark journey between the stars."

Interstellar objects like 3I/ATLAS are remnants from distant star systems that have been ejected into space. They offer valuable insights into the building blocks of other planetary systems in the universe — including the chemical elements that were present when and where they formed, according to the statement.

3I/ATLAS is only the third interstellar object detected visiting our solar system, after 1I'Oumuamua in 2017 and 2I/Borisov in 2019. While more objects of this nature are believed to regularly pass through our solar system, they are incredibly difficult to capture.

However, at an estimated 12 miles (20 km) in diameter, 3I/ATLAS is much larger than previous interstellar objects, making it a better target for study. The new images from the Gemini North telescope show that the comet has a compact coma — the cloud of gas and dust enveloping its icy core. And other observations have suggested that it may be the oldest comet ever discovered (possibly older than our solar system), hailing from the outer thick disk of the Milky Way.

3I/ATLAS will reach its closest approach to the sun on Oct. 30, passing within 130 million miles (210 million km), or just inside the orbit of Mars. In December, 3I/ATLAS will pass within about 170 million miles (270 million km) of Earth, though it will pose no danger to our planet.

Given 3I/ATLAS' highly eccentric orbit, this will be its one and only visit to our solar system, as its trajectory does not loop back around the sun. That's why astronomers around the world are using a wide variety of telescopes to observe the comet during its brief visit, before it returns to interstellar space.

The pulsar in question is PSR J1023+0038 (J1023), which sits in a binary system located 4,500 light-years away from Earth. This binary consists of a "dead star," or neutron star that spins around 600 times a second, as well as a low-mass star upon which the neutron star "feeds."

The rapid spin of J1023 classifies it as a millisecond pulsar, but because it transitions clearly between an active state — during which it feeds and blasts out beams of radiation from its poles — and an inactive state, it is part of a rare subclass called "transitional millisecond pulsar." One of just three known transitional millisecond pulsars, J1023 is an invaluable target for astronomers.

"Transitional millisecond pulsars are cosmic laboratories that help us understand how neutron stars evolve in binary systems," team leader and National Institute for Astrophysics (INAF) researcher Maria Cristina Baglio said in a statement. "J1023 is a particularly valuable source of data because it clearly transitions between its active state, in which it feeds on its companion star, and a more dormant state, in which it behaves like a standard pulsar, emitting detectable radio waves."

The matter this neutron star strips from its companion doesn't fall straight to the surface of the dead star, but instead forms a flattened cloud, or "accretion disk" around the star. As this disk swirls around the neutron star, gradually feeding it, it emits powerful radiation consisting of wavelengths across the electromagnetic spectrum.

Thus, the team was able to examine J1023 using NASA's Imaging X-ray Polarimetry Explorer (IXPE), the European Southern Observatory's (ESO) Very Large Telescope (VLT) in northern Chile, and the Karl G. Jansky Very Large Array (VLA) in New Mexico, making this the first survey of binary X-ray source over the X-ray, optical and radio bands of the electromagnetic spectrum.

"During the observations, the pulsar was in a low-luminosity active phase, characterized by rapid changes between different X-ray brightness levels," Baglio said.

Assessing J1023 across three bands of the electromagnetic spectrum allowed the team to determine the polarization of radiation coming from this pulsar. Polarization refers to the orientation of light waves as they propagate.

Of particular note was IXPE's observation that 12% of the X-rays from J1023 are polarized. That is the highest level of polarization ever seen from such a binary star system.

The radio wave and optical light emissions showed lower polarizations of 2% and 1%, respectively. What was particularly interesting about the optical polarization was the fact that it was oriented in the same direction as the angle of X-ray polarization. This suggests a common mechanism behind the polarization of X-rays and the polarization of optical light.

The findings confirm an earlier theory that suggested the observed polarized emissions from binary systems such as J1023 are generated when pulsars' winds, streams of high-energy charged particles flowing from these dead stars, strike the matter in the surrounding accretion disks.

This research could finally help scientists understand what powers pulsars, and it wouldn't have been possible without the sensitivity of IXPE.

"This observation, given the low intensity of the X-ray flux, was extremely challenging, but the sensitivity of IXPE allowed us to confidently detect and measure this remarkable alignment between optical and X-ray polarization," team member and INAF researcher Alessandro Di Marco said. "This study represents an ingenious way to test theoretical scenarios thanks to polarimetric observations at multiple wavelengths."

The team's research was published on July 1 in The Astrophysical Journal Letters.

The first wildfire to directly impact Grand Canyon National Park was the Dragon Bravo Fire, which began on July 4. Dragon Bravo has already scorched thousands of acres and continues to destroy a number of structures, including the monumental Grand Canyon Lodge, along its path within the park’s North Rim. Five days after the Dragon Bravo Fire began, another thunderstorm resulted in the creation of the White Sage Fire, which rapidly grew and expanded during a period of dry and hot weather accompanied by powerful wind gusts.

In order to fight the fires from all angles, firefighters, weather forecasters and community leaders depend on information gathered in space from satellites. Some satellites are equipped with instruments that can monitor a wildfire's progression and growth, as well as provide high-resolution photos of both the fire itself and the associated smoke plume. There are two satellite constellations from NOAA that particularly tag-team with wildfire updates: the Geostationary Operational Environmental Satellite (GOES) and the Joint Polar Satellite System (JPSS). Together, the satellites can paint a picture using tools they're equipped with, with JPSS tracking the United States in a non-geosynchronous orbit while 512 miles (824 kilometers) above us and GOES orbiting around the Earth at the same speed in a geosynchronous orbit while 22,236 miles (35,786 kilometers) above.

So, how do satellites gather information that's crucial in the fight to contain a wildfire?

There are different filters and spectral bands that can be used to get that information., and tools on the satellites are able to analyze just those two things. These tools capture high-resolution images of the growth and expansion of a wildfire in almost real-time. They can also show, via time-lapse, the direction that fire and smoke are moving. If we look at the time-lapse of images taken by the Advanced Baseline Imager (ABI) aboard NOAA's GOES-18 satellite, you can see where the fire originated, its rapid growth and expansion, and how the direction of the wind steered the flames over time (in this view, the winds were blowing from the north/northwest).

Another instrument that regularly provides important information about wildfires lives on NOAA's JPSS satellites, NOAA-20 and NOAA-21. Even after the sun goes to sleep, the Visible Infrared Imaging Radiometer Suite (VIIRS) can continue to snap photos of the wildfire. These details keep first responders and community leaders aware of the fire's behavior — and alert them if any growth, new hot spots, or updates critical with fighting the wildfire can be seen. These monitoring tools thus remain of extreme importance, continuously providing information to help us understand a wildfire with a level of accuracy and precision that ground reports alone cannot offer.

You can find more information on both the Dragon Bravo and White Sage fires through the InciWeb site and any closure details from Grand Canyon National Park are located here.

As wind swirls across the landscape on both Mars and Earth, it sweeps up ground particles that reveal the dry columns. The whirlwinds dance across the landscape, leaving a path revealed by excavated particles. On the active surface of Earth, such paths are hard to spot. But on the nearly inactive surface of Mars, they can remain for months, long after the devils' minutes-long lifetimes.

"Dust devils themselves are difficult to capture in images because they are so short-lived," Ingrid Daubar, a planetary scientist at Brown University and lead author of the study, told Space.com by email. "The tracks they leave behind last longer, so we are able to observe them more thoroughly."

Dusting off the fingerprints

On warm, windy days in Earth's deserts, vortices of sand and debris can form suddenly and move unpredictably. (This author distinctly recalls being "chased" by one such devil in the Mojave Desert as a child in 1990.) Similar conditions on Mars can also produce dust devils. But the whirls on the Red Planet tend to be both wider and taller than their counterparts on Earth, and scientists aren't sure why.

Questions like these led Dauber and her colleagues to study images from the High Resolution Imaging Science Experiment (HiRISE) on NASA's Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter — the highest-resolution photos of the planet snapped from space. HiRISE can capture features as small as 3 feet (1 meter). But its detailed perspective comes at a price: Its images cover only a small percentage of the Martian surface and are taken by request, though most latitudes and longitudes are well sampled.

Dauber's team studied 21,475 HiRISE images taken between January 2014 and April 2018 — roughly a quarter of the snapshots captured by the instrument as of autumn 2024. Tracks appear in only 798 of those, or just under 4%. Dust devil tracks (DDTs) suggest dust devils are more common at high northern and southern latitudes and are especially active in each hemisphere's summer, peaking in the southern hemisphere's summer.

According to the researchers, Mars' significant orbital eccentricity, or deviation from a perfect circle, causes the atmosphere in the southern summer to circulate more energetically, creating conditions ideal for vortex formation. That, combined with less dust accumulation in the North, makes the southern hemisphere summer an almost perfect storm for dust devils. The observations reflect peak DDT preservation more than dust devil formation, the researchers cautioned, but the culmination coincides with the peak observed by NASA's Spirit rover at Gusev crater, along with global observations of the sand spouts.

The researchers also realized that DDTs most commonly form and are preserved in regions of mixed sand, rocks and bedrock, with little bright dust, the most common surface type identified on Mars. Bright dust scooped up from the surface leaves behind trails that are dark from the underlying landscape.

"The material on the ground is critical to the formation of the DDTs," Dauber said.

Dusty missions

The first Martian dust devil tracks appeared in images sent back from NASA's Mariner 9 mission in 1972 (although they weren't discovered until the images were analyzed in 2014). But it wasn't until 1998, when higher-resolution images were captured by Mars Global Surveyor, that the tracks could be seriously analyzed.

Dust has hindered past ground missions. Mars rovers take their energy from the sun via solar panels. Over time, dust builds up on the panels, limiting their efficacy. The blockage has shuttered missions like NASA's Opportunity rover, which explored the surface for 14.5 years. NASA's InSight lander also succumbed to a dust-related death after four years.

The high winds that birth dust devils can also revitalize robots, however. Opportunity's twin, Spirit, got a second lease on life after a Martian whirlwind cleaned its solar arrays back in 2005.

Understanding where dust devils are most active can help in the selection of landing sites for future missions. High-latitude bands where DDTs and their progenitors occur more frequently could help to scour solar panels and thus enable a more enduring exploration.

"It depends on the mission — every mission is unique," Daubar said. There are many requirements for landing sites and exploration, including regions that will allow for a safe touchdown, alongside complex scientific goals.

"It could be that there are only a few places where the specific science goals can be achieved, and then perhaps this could be a deciding factor between those sites," she said.

A new study of dust devils on Mars was published in May 2025 in the journal Geophysical Research Letters.

The strange orbit of the object, designated 2023 KQ_{14 a}nd nicknamed "Ammonite," classifies it as a "sednoid." Sednoids are bodies beyond the orbit of the ice giant Neptune, known as trans-Neptunian objects (TNOs), characterized by a highly eccentric (non-circular) orbit and a distant closest approach to the sun or "perihelion."

The closest distance that 2023 KQ₁₄ ever comes to our star is equivalent to 71 times the distance between Earth and the sun. The sednoid is estimated to be between 136 and 236 miles (220 and 380 kilometers) wide. That makes it 45 times wider than the height of Mount Everest.

This is just the fourth known sednoid, and its orbit is currently different from that of its siblings, though it seems to have been stable for 4.5 billion years. However, the team behind the discovery, made using Subaru Telescope as part of the Formation of the Outer Solar System: An Icy Legacy (FOSSIL) survey, thinks that all four sednoids were on similar orbits around 4.2 billion years ago. That implies something dramatic happened out at the edge of the solar system around 400 million years after its birth.

Not only does the fact that 2023 KQ₁₄ now follows a unique orbit suggest that the outer solar system is more complex and varied than previously thought, but it also places limits on a hypothetical "Planet Nine" theorized to lurk at the edge of the solar system.

"The fact that 2023 KQ₁₄'s current orbit does not align with those of the other three sednoids lowers the likelihood of the Planet Nine hypothesis," team leader Yukun Huang of the National Astronomical Observatory of Japan said in a statement. "It is possible that a planet once existed in the solar system but was later ejected, causing the unusual orbits we see today."

Hello 2023 KQ14. Goodbye Planet Nine?

2023 KQ₁₄ was first spotted in the wide field of view of the Subaru Telescope, located on Hawaii's Mauna Kea volcano, in observations collected during March, May, and August 2023.

The sednoid was confirmed using the Canada-France-Hawaii Telescope during follow-up observations performed in July 2024.

This data was combined with archival data from other observatories, allowing astronomers to reconstruct the orbit of 2023 KQ₁₄ over the past 19 years.

But this is a celestial body that likely formed as the planets of the solar system were taking shape around the infant sun around 4.6 billion years ago. Thus, astronomers were keen to retell the story of its orbit for much longer than two decades.

To do this, Huang and their FOSSIL team colleagues turned to the computer cluster operated by the National Astronomical Observatory of Japan to perform complex numerical simulations. This revealed the orbital stability of 2023 KQ₁₄ for 4.5 billion years and the implications of that steady orbit.

"2023 KQ₁₄ was found in a region far away where Neptune's gravity has little influence," team member and planetary scientist Fumi Yoshida said. "The presence of objects with elongated orbits and large perihelion distances in this area implies that something extraordinary occurred during the ancient era when 2023 KQ₁₄ formed.

"Understanding the orbital evolution and physical properties of these unique, distant objects is crucial for comprehending the full history of the solar system."

Yoshida added that, at present, the Subaru Telescope is one of the only telescopes on Earth capable of making a discovery like that of 2023 KQ₁₄.

"I would be happy if the FOSSIL team could make many more discoveries like this one and help draw a complete picture of the history of the solar system," Yoshida concluded.

The team's research was published on Monday (July 14), in the journal Nature Astronomy.

The jagged, 54-pound (25-kilogram) chunk of the Red Planet is formally called NWA 16788. It was found in Northwest Africa, which is where the "NWA" title comes from — but, surprisingly, the bidding war to attain this cosmic relic wasn't as enthusiastic as many expected. Before live bidding began, advance bids set the starting price of NWA 16799 at $2 million — during live bidding, however, things were slow. Still, the object sold for higher than the original estimate that maxed out at $4 million.

As Cassandra Hatton, the vice chairman of science and natural history at Sotheby's, told Space.com, NWA 16788 doesn't only set itself apart from other Mars meteorites we've found on the planet in size, but also in aesthetics. "It also looks just like the surface of the Red Planet," she said. "Most other Martian meteorites that we find are really small, thin slices, and when you first look at them, you would never guess that they're Martian." For context, this particular Mars meteorite is about 70% larger than the next largest Mars meteorite that's been located on planet Earth; and Hatton says many of those smaller Red Planet samples sold for between $20,000 and $80,000.

As for the identity of the proud new owner of the largest piece of the Red Planet we have on Earth? Well, we may never know. It's fully up to the buyer to reveal themselves, and Hatton says many choose to remain anonymous.

"There's all sorts of reasons — maybe safety," she said. "Maybe they're worried somebody will try to steal it from them; maybe they want to be an anonymous donor to a museum. People have all sorts of motivations for keeping it quiet, and then some people like to announce it immediately."

This Mars rock wasn't the only rare object to be sold for a hefty sum during Wednesday's auction. The other star of the show was a mounted juvenile Ceratosaurus skeleton from approximately 154-149 million years ago, which sold for $26 million, and a plethora of incredible items were distributed during the event. For instance, a 67-million-year-old Tyrannosaurus Rex foot sold for $1.4 million; a Megalodon Shark tooth from Virginia sold for $18,000; a Neanderthal tool set sold for $45,000; and a stunning, clear blue Aquamarine specimen sold for $75,000. (All prices mentioned do not include the extra fees).

"At the end of the day, it's the bidders who tell us what things are worth, not me, not anyone else. The estimates are just there to give people an indication," Hatton told Space.com. "Last summer, I sold the Stegosaurus 'Apex.' For the Stegosaurus, the estimate was [$4 million to $6 million], and it sold for $44.6 million."

"I've had single objects sell for $6 million," Hatton said. "I did the whole Buzz Aldrin collection, and I think that did $8 million. I did the whole Richard Feynman collection of his Nobel Prize in papers that did $4 million."

The entire concept of auctions, particularly for scientific objects that could benefit the public as well as scientific community, can be quite fraught. Why not freely donate to scientific laboratories, children's museums or other public spaces? Hatton, however, believes that attaching monetary value to such items can incentivize collectors to take care of those items — perhaps better than museums that struggle with funding can.

She also says many collectors tend to donate their purchases to museums, or at least allow them to be displayed, while also providing a sum of money to the selected institution to help staff take care of the objects. Some of that money, she says, may even be set aside to create funding for postdoctoral researchers who can study the objects.

In order to confirm that NWA 16788 is indeed a Mars meteorite, a small piece of it was also broken off to send to a lab. This piece may be helpful for scientists looking to analyze the object. "A sample has been taken and analyzed and published in the meteoritical bulletin, so they could go and get that," Hatton said.

The Infinity Galaxy gets its name from the fact that its shape resembles an infinity symbol (a sideways 8) with two red lobes or "nuclei." This shape is thought to have arisen because the Infinity Galaxy was formed as two disk galaxies engaged in a head-on collision.

What makes this highly unusual is the fact that this black hole sits between the two colliding galaxies in a vast cloud of gas, rather than in either respective nucleus. From its perch between these galaxies, the black hole now feeds greedily on that gas, but researchers think that same cloud also once birthed it. That would make this the first observational evidence of the direct collapse pathway of black hole birth.

The researchers behind these findings uncovered the Infinity Galaxy while examining images from the JWST's 255-hour treasury COSMOS-Web survey. In addition to the suspected direct collapse black hole that sits between the colliding galaxies, the team found that each nucleus of those galaxies also contains a supermassive black hole!

"Everything is unusual about this galaxy. Not only does it look very strange, but it also has this supermassive black hole that's pulling a lot of material in," team leader and Yale University researcher Pieter van Dokkum said in a statement. "The biggest surprise of all was that the black hole was not located inside either of the two nuclei but in the middle.

"We asked ourselves: How can we make sense of this?"

van Dokkum explained that finding a black hole not in the nucleus of a massive galaxy isn't, in itself, unusual. What is strange is the question of how that black hole got there.

"It likely didn't just arrive there, but instead it formed there," van Dokkum said. "And pretty recently. In other words, we think we're witnessing the birth of a supermassive black hole – something that has never been seen before."

This discovery could solve an intriguing mystery regarding the observation of supermassive black holes with masses millions or billions of times that of the sun, less than 1 billion years after the Big Bang.

Black holes could skip stellar deaths and supernovas

Since it began operating three years ago, the JWST has delivered something of a conundrum to cosmologists; observations that show supermassive black holes seem common as early as 500 million years after the Big Bang.

That's a problem because it was previously proposed that supermassive black holes form through successive mergers of smaller black holes. However, beginning this process with so-called stellar-mass black holes would require waiting for the first generation of stars to form, live their lives, then collapse in supernova explosions. The resulting black holes would have to undergo a series of mergers and periods of intense feeding upon interstellar gas and dust.

This process would take at least a billion years to "grow" a black hole to supermassive status. Thus, seeing a multitude of supermassive black holes before the universe was 1 billion years old is problematic.

That is, unless these bodies got a head start by skipping the stellar life and birth stage of this process.

"How supermassive black holes formed is a long-standing question. There are two main theories, called 'light seeds' and 'heavy seeds.' In the light seed theory, you start with small black holes formed when a star's core collapses and the star explodes as a supernova," van Dokkum explained. "That might result in a black hole weighing up to about 1,000 suns. You form a lot of them in a small space, and they merge over time to become a much more massive black hole."

As mentioned above, the problem with that is the time this process would take and the JWST's discovery of incredibly massive black holes at early stages of our 13.8 billion-year-old universe.

Black holes could have heavy seeds

Alternatively, the heavy seed theory sees supermassive black hole growth kickstarted with a much larger black hole, maybe up to one million times the mass of the sun. This forms directly from the collapse of a large gas cloud.

"You immediately form a giant black hole, so it's much quicker. However, the problem with forming a black hole out of a gas cloud is that gas clouds like to form stars as they collapse rather than a black hole, so you have to find some way of preventing that. It's not clear that this direct-collapse process could work in practice," van Dokkum said. "By looking at the data from the Infinity Galaxy, we think we've pieced together a story of how this could have happened here."

The researchers suggest that as the two disk galaxies collided, a ring structure of stars, visible in the JWST image, was formed. During this collision, gas within these two galaxies would have been shocked and compressed. They think this compression may have been so extreme that it formed a "dense knot" in the gas, which then collapsed into a black hole.

As van Dokkum explained, there is a wealth of circumstantial evidence for this formation channel for the black hole in the Infinity Galaxy.

"We observe a large swath of ionized gas, specifically hydrogen that has been stripped of its electrons, that's right in the middle between the two nuclei, surrounding the supermassive black hole," he continued. "We also know that the black hole is actively growing – we see evidence of that in X-rays from NASA's Chandra X-ray Observatory and radio from the Very Large Array. Nevertheless, the question is, did it form there?"

There are two possible explanations that don't involve a direct collapse black hole forming at the intersection of these merged galaxies.

"First, it could be a runaway black hole that got ejected from a galaxy and just happens to be passing through," van Dokkum said. "Second, it could be a black hole at the center of a third galaxy in the same location on the sky. If it were in a third galaxy, we would expect to see the surrounding galaxy unless it were a faint dwarf galaxy. However, dwarf galaxies don't tend to host giant black holes.

"If the black hole were a runaway, or if it were in an unrelated galaxy, we would expect it to have a very different velocity from the gas in the Infinity Galaxy."

To test this, the team intends to measure the velocity of the gas and the velocity of the black hole and compare them. Should those velocities be close, within around 30 miles per second (50 kilometers per second), then van Dokkum asserts that it will be hard to argue that the black hole is not formed from that gas.

"Our preliminary results are exciting. First, the presence of an extended distribution of ionized gas between the two nuclei is confirmed. Second, the black hole is beautifully in the middle of the velocity distribution of this surrounding gas, as expected if it formed there. This is the key result that we were after!" van Dokkum continued. "Third, as an unexpected bonus, it turns out that both galaxy nuclei also have an active supermassive black hole."

Though the team can't say definitively that they discovered a direct collapse black hole, they can state with confidence that this JWST data strengthens the case for this being a newborn black hole, while eliminating some of the counter-explanations to the direct collapse pathway.

"This system has three confirmed active black holes: two very massive ones in both of the galaxy nuclei, and the one in between them that might have formed there," van Dokkum said. "We will continue to pore through the data and investigate these possibilities."

Astronomers have witnessed the birth of a planetary system that could one day resemble the solar system. The discovery offers scientists a proxy to study how our home planetary system formed around the sun around 4.6 billion years ago.

The team was able to pinpoint the moment specks of material that will one day forge planets began to form around the infant star HOPS-315, located around 1,300 light-years away.

The breakthrough was made possible with data from the Atacama Large Millimeter/ submillimeter Array (ALMA), an array of 66 radio telescopes located in the desert of northern Chile, and observations from the James Webb Space Telescope (JWST).

"For the first time, we have identified the earliest moment when planet formation is initiated around a star other than our sun," team leader and Leiden University researcher Melissa McClure said.

The team's results were published on Wednesday (July 16) in the journal Nature.

Protostars and protoplanetary disks

Stars are born when cool and overdense patches of interstellar gas and dust collapse under their own gravity. This results in a "protostar" surrounded by an envelope of the same material from which it formed.

This material is eventually flattened out into a swirling disk with the protostar at its heart. That structure is known as a "protoplanetary disk," as it is from this and within it that new planets will form.

Astronomers have seen many infant stars surrounded by protoplanetary disks, embedded within which are young and massive Jupiter-sized worlds. However, to see the origin of these fresh extrasolar planets or "exoplanets," astronomers needed to catch protoplanetary disks at an earlier stage.

"We've always known that the first solid parts of planets, or 'planetesimals,' must form further back in time, at earlier stages," McClure said.

A clue as to what scientists should be looking for in these disks at early stages can be found on Earth, sealed within meteorites that have fallen to our planet.

Sowing the seeds of the solar system

Meteorites are fragments of asteroids that formed 4.6 billion years ago at the same time that the planets of our solar system were taking shape.

That means that trapped within these space rocks is a fossil record of our planetary system, including the materials that were present at its origin.

Within meteorites is a wealth of crystalline minerals that contain silicon monoxide, which condenses at high temperatures, such as those found in the protoplanetary disk around the sun during the formative period of the solar system.

This crystalline material was the first solid matter in the solar system, and was bound together by gravity to create mile-wide planetesimals, the seeds of the terrestrial planets like Earth and the cores of solar system gas giants like Jupiter.

This team was able to spot traces of hot minerals condensing in the protoplanetary disk swirling around HOPS-315. In particular, they detected silicon monoxide both as a gas around this infant star and in crystalline materials. This suggests that the condensation of minerals has just begun around HOPS-315.

"This process has never been seen before in a protoplanetary disk — or anywhere outside our solar system," team member and University of Michigan researcher Edwin Bergin said.

The minerals were first spotted by the JWST, with ALMA pinpointing their location to a small area of the protoplanetary disk. This region has a similar orbital distance to HOPS-315 as the distance between the solar system's main asteroid belt and the sun.

"We're really seeing these minerals at the same location in this extrasolar system as where we see them in asteroids in the solar system," team member and Leiden University researcher Logan Francis said.

That means HOPS-315 is an excellent proxy to study our own cosmic history.

Team member Merel van 't Hoff of Purdue University compared this discovery to "a picture of the baby solar system."

"We're seeing a system that looks like what our solar system looked like when it was just beginning to form," van 't Hoff concluded. "This system is one of the best that we know to actually probe some of the processes that happened in our solar system."

The team, comprised of cosmologists from Durham University, combined supercomputer simulations with mathematical modeling to predict the existence of missing Milky Way "orphan" galaxies. The researchers' novel technique suggests that as many as 100 extra satellite dwarf galaxies could orbit our large, spiral galaxy.

This has ramifications that extend way beyond our own patch of space, however. Should these orbiting orphans be detected, they could bolster support for the standard model of the universe, the Lambda Cold Dark Matter (LCDM) model. The LCDM is our current best explanation for the large-scale evolution and structure of the entire cosmos.

"We know the Milky Way has some 60 confirmed companion satellite galaxies, but we think there should be dozens more of these faint galaxies orbiting around the Milky Way at close distances," Isabel Santos-Santos, study team leader and a researcher at Durham University, said in a statement. "If our predictions are right, it adds more weight to the LCDM theory of the formation and evolution of structure in the universe."

Challenging our understanding of the cosmos

The LCDM model of the universe posits that around 70% of the cosmic matter and energy budget in the cosmos is accounted for by dark energy, the mysterious force causing the expansion of space to accelerate. The equally mysterious dark matter is the next greatest contributor to that budget — accounting for 25%. "Ordinary matter" made up of atoms comprised of electrons, protons and neutrons accounts for just 5% of the matter and energy in the universe, according to this model.

The LCDM model further suggests that galaxies formed where vast clumps of dark matter once congregated; the dark matter would've then formed haloes around each budding galaxy. These dark matter haloes are now suspected to surround galaxies, stretching much further beyond a galaxy's visible matter content, like stars and gas.

Most galaxies in the cosmos are predicted to be low-mass dwarf galaxies orbiting larger galaxies, like the Milky Way — but this bit is challenging for the LCDM to explain. That's because the standard model of cosmology suggests there should be way more satellite galaxies around the Milky Way than are seen through observations and predicted through simulations.

This new research — in part based upon the Aquarius simulation which is the highest-resolution simulation of a Milky Way dark matter halo ever generated — implies that the "missing" satellite galaxies of the Milky Way are both extremely faint and have been stripped of their own dark matter haloes.

The simulation, performed on the Cosmology Machine (COSMA), predicted anywhere between 80 and 100 of these unseen orphans.

Not only did Santos-Santos and colleagues track just how many of these orphan galaxies should surround the Milky Way, but they also estimated where the galaxies should be distributed — and even what properties they should have.

They believe previous cosmological simulations have failed to account for these galaxies. This is because it's possible those simulations lack the precision needed to track the evolution of small dark matter halos around dwarf galaxies over billions of years as these galaxies orbit the Milky Way.

Though the galaxies are indeed "orphaned" in those simulations, they survived in the team's models thanks to the novel approach to creating the models; and, according to this research, the galaxies should survive in the real universe, too.

The team points to 30 recently discovered objects that could be satellite galaxies of the Milky Way, suggesting they could be a subset of the orphan galaxies predicted in this research.

"If the population of very faint satellites that we are predicting is discovered with new data, it would be a remarkable success of the LCDM theory of galaxy formation," Carlos Frenk, study team member and a researcher at Durham University, said in the statement. "It would also provide a clear illustration of the power of physics and mathematics. Using the laws of physics, solved using a large supercomputer and mathematical modelling, we can make precise predictions that astronomers, equipped with new, powerful telescopes, can test.

"It doesn't get much better than this."

The team's research could act as a guide for future astronomy projects such as the Vera C. Rubin Observatory, which could have the observing power needed to spot tiny and faint orphan galaxies.

"Observational astronomers are using our predictions as a benchmark with which to compare the new data they are obtaining," Santos-Santos said. "One day soon we may be able to see these 'missing' galaxies, which would be hugely exciting and could tell us more about how the universe came to be as we see it today."

The team's results were presented on Friday (July 11) at the Royal Astronomical Society's National Astronomy Meeting at Durham University.

"Our work is a new piece of evidence that suggests that Mars was once a much more complex and active planet than it is now, which is such an exciting thing to be involved in," study leader Adam Losekoot of the U.K.'s Open University said in a statement.

We've known Mars was once a wet planet ever since the Mariner 9 orbiter mission from the '70s photographed a surface covered in dried-up river channels. These channels were dated back to over 3.5 billion years ago. However, channels cut into the ground are not the only evidence for running water on Mars.

When that water ran-off, or evaporated, it left sedimentary deposits. Sometimes we see these in craters that were once lakes filled with water: NASA's Curiosity rover is exploring Gale Crater, which has a central three-mile-tall (five-kilometer-tall) peak covered in sediment.

Other times, these sediments were laid down on river beds. Over the eons, the sediments would have hardened, while the river channels and the land around them would have weathered and eroded away. That left the sediments, which are more resistant to erosion, sticking out as tall ridges. Geologists today call them fluvial sinuous ridges, or, more plainly, inverted channels.

Now, Losekoot, who is a Ph.D. student, has led the discovery of a vast network of these channels in Noachis Terra based on images and data taken by the High Resolution Imaging Science Experiment (HiRISE) camera and the Context Camera on NASA's Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter, and the Mars Orbiter Laser Altimeter (MOLA) on the defunct Mars Global Surveyor mission.

Previously, Noachis Terra had not been given due attention because it lacked the more classical river channels that form more obvious evidence of water. However, by mapping the network of inverted channels, Losekoot realized there was lots of evidence there had once been plentiful water in the region.

"Studying Mars, particularly an under-explored region like Noachis Terra, is really exciting because it's an environment which has been largely unchanged for billions of years," said Losekoot. "It's a time capsule that records fundamental geological processes in a way that just isn't possible here on Earth."

Some of the inverted channels appear as isolated segments that have survived the elements for billions of years. Others are more intact, forming systems that run for hundreds of miles and stand tens of yards tall.

Such a widespread network of inverted channels does not suggest these channels were caused by flash floods, argues Losekoot. Rather, they seem to have formed in stable climatic conditions over a geologically significant period of time during the Noachian–Hesperian transition, which was the shift from one geological era into the next around 3.7 billion years ago.

What's particularly intriguing is the most likely source of water to have formed these inverted channels is precipitation — be it rain, hail or snow. Indeed, given the size of the inverted channel network in Noachis Terra, this region of Mars may have experienced lots of rainy days in a warm and wet climate.

It's more evidence that Mars was once more like Earth than the cold and barren desert it is today.

Losekoot presented his findings at the Royal Astronomical Society's National Astronomy Meeting held at the University of Durham in the U.K., which ran between July 7 and July 11.

On July 15, a colossal filament erupted from the sun's northeastern limb, dramatically reshaping part of our star's surface, albeit briefly, and unleashing a coronal mass ejection (CME) into space.

The outburst was so powerful that it carved a glowing trench of hot plasma more than 250,000 miles (about 400,000 kilometers) long, roughly the distance from Earth to the moon.

The explosive event was captured in stunning detail by NASA's Solar Dynamics Observatory (SDO), showing the filament unraveling as solar material arcs and cascades through the sun's atmosphere. As the filament collapsed, it left behind what some call a "canyon of fire," with towering walls estimated to rise at least 12,400 miles (20,000 km) high, according to Spaceweather.com

These glowing rifts form when the sun's magnetic field lines violently snap and realign after an eruption, leaving behind a searing hot trench of plasma that traces the reshaping magnetic field, according to NASA.

This fiery chasm isn't just a visual spectacle. Filaments are cooler, dense ribbons of solar plasma that can hang suspended above the sun's surface by magnetic fields, according to NOAA. When these become unstable, they can erupt dramatically, sometimes launching coronal mass ejections (CMEs) into space — powerful blasts of solar plasma and magnetic fields that can trigger geomagnetic storms here on Earth.

Coronagraph imagery from the Solar and Heliospheric Observatory (SOHO) and GOES-19 satellite suggests that while the filament eruption did release a CME, there is no Earth-directed component.

"The CME is heading away from Earth," aurora chaser Vincent Ledvina wrote in a post on X. "Here is the CME in LASCO C2 (left) and CCOR-1 (right) which has a later frame of the CME further spread out. The front is traveling pretty slowly and away from Earth."

You can keep up to date with the latest northern lights forecasts, alerts and geomagnetic storm warnings with our aurora forecast live blog.

The near side of the moon is familiar to us as the only side that we can see from Earth. Dark regions called maria are vast lava plains filling lowland impact basins, and give us the pattern of the "man in the moon." Yet the far side of the moon, which can only be seen by orbiting spacecraft, has barely any maria and is covered by craggy, cratered and ancient highlands. That's not the only difference between the two hemispheres; the thickness of the moon's crust is thinner on the near side, volcanic activity appears to have occurred at different points in time, and the mantle beneath the far side seems heavily depleted in certain elements compared to the near side.

However, while we have many samples from the lunar near side, particularly those brought back to Earth by the Apollo missions, the Soviet Luna missions and China's own Chang'e 5, we had nothing from the far side with which to test theories.

Then, in June 2024, China's Chang'e 6 mission landed in the SPA basin and brought back samples totaling 1,935.3 grams (68.27 ounces).

The SPA basin is the largest impact site on the moon, spanning 2,500 kilometers (1,600 miles) and extends from the lunar south pole and onto the far side of the moon. It's also the oldest known impact feature on the moon, with an age of 4.25 billion years. What impact — pardon the pun — could the sheer violence of the SPA basin's formation have had on lunar geology and the thermal evolution of the moon's interior? Could it have caused the dichotomy between the moon's two hemispheres?

Chang'e 6's samples are the first from the lunar far side, and have offered a unique opportunity to test models that could potentially explain the difference between the moon's two hemispheres.

Consequently, following analysis of the samples, researchers led by a team from the Chinese Academy of Sciences have announced four major discoveries.

The first is that the samples contain volcanic rocks called basalts that date to prolonged volcanic outbursts on the lunar far side in two distinct phases, one around 4.2 billion years ago and another 2.8 billion years ago.

"We propose that the 4.2-billion-year-old basalt was associated with the formation of the SPA basin because it is a high-aluminum basalt, requiring the incorporation of crustal plagioclase into its source," Wei Yang, a professor at the Institute of Geology and Geophysics at the Chinese Academy of Sciences, told Space.com in an email interview. Meanwhile, "the 2.8-billion-year-old basalts originated from the deep mantle, the product of the early stage crystallization of the lunar magma ocean."

The evolution of this lunar magma ocean that formed the moon's mantle is central to the next discovery, which is that geochemical analysis of the basalt samples points to a source in the lunar mantle deep below ground that is heavily depleted in particular elements such as thorium. It is unknown whether this depleted mantle is found only beneath the SPA basin, or whether it is more extensive across the moon.

"To be honest, we don't know," said Yang.

One possibility is that the moon has had this depleted mantle since birth, in which case both the near and far sides should share this composition. The other possibility is that it was produced after the lunar magma ocean formed and began to crystallize.

"Personally, I am more inclined to believe the latter, given that such a massive impact has the potential to affect the mantle down to a depth of 250 kilometers [155 miles]," said Yang. "If it is only present in the SPA basin, then it must have formed as a result of the SPA impact. To figure this out, we need to collect more samples from the moon's far side, particularly from areas outside the SPA."

The third discovery is of something we wouldn't expect to find on the moon: water. However, we are talking parts-per-million here — the Apollo samples were considered "bone dry," and the far side mantle seems to be even drier than that.

"The water content of this mantle is lower than those of the mantle sources of all the basalts from the near side," said Yang.

The final discovery relates to the moon's magnetic field. Earth's natural satellite currently doesn't have a global magnetic field, and traces of magnetism remain only in a handful of anomalous patches called lunar swirls. However, in the distant past it did have a global magnetic field. The Chang'e 6 samples retain a record of it, and show that the magnetic field, after decaying for a time, rebounded in strength about 2.8 billion years ago. This indicates that the moon's internal dynamo fluctuated, possibly episodically, rather than just experiencing a slow but gradual decline.

The timing coincides with the second phase of volcanism on the far-side.

"The magnetic field rebounded 2.8 billion years ago, which suggests that the interior of the moon still contained a lot of energy," said Yang. "Perhaps convection and the upward flow of hot material existed in the lunar mantle at that time."

Not only could this upward flow have triggered volcanic eruptions, it could have been enough to vaporize much of the water in the mantle, drying it out.

If the creation of the SPA basin is the cause of much of this, then it has repercussions that go far beyond the moon. Other giant impact features are seen on other bodies, particularly on Mercury and Mars. We may have underestimated the role that these giant impacts played on the evolution of the planets' interiors.

The Chang'e 6 results were presented in four papers (1, 2, 3, 4) that were published recently in the journal Nature.

These lakes and Titan's seas are filled with liquid hydrocarbons like ethane and methane rather than water. And though we know water is a key ingredient of life on Earth, astrobiologists have theorized that Titan's liquid hydrocarbons could allow the molecules needed for life to form, whether that life is similar to what we see on Earth or a very different form of life.

This new research suggests a way vesicles could form on Titan based on what we know about its atmosphere and chemistry. The formation of such compartments is a key step on the road to the development of "protocells."

"The existence of any vesicles on Titan would demonstrate an increase in order and complexity, which are conditions necessary for the origin of life," Conor Nixon of NASA's Goddard Space Flight Center said in a statement.

"We're excited about these new ideas because they can open up new directions in Titan research and may change how we search for life on Titan in the future."

The path to life starts with pockets

The process of creating vesicles begins with molecules called amphiphiles, dual-nature molecules with both water-loving (hydrophilic) and water-repellent (hydrophobic) ends. Under certain conditions, these molecules can self-organize to create vesicles.

On Earth, when amphiphiles meet water, they group together to form spheres similar to soap bubbles with the water-loving end facing outwards, protecting the hydrophobic end.

If two layers of amphiphiles are together, they can form a bilayer "ball" with a shell of water sandwiched between the two layers of molecules. A structure that resembles a living cell.

This process would be very different on Titan due to its environment, one that is radically different than Earth's.

Titan isn't just the largest moon in the solar system; it is also the moon with the densest atmosphere. This is primarily because of Titan's cool temperature and its distance from the sun, which prevents its atmosphere from being stripped by the solar wind.

From 2004 to 2017, the Cassini spacecraft was able to stare through this substantial atmosphere to discover how the meteorological cycle of Titan has influenced its surface.

Though the majority of Titan's atmosphere is composed of nitrogen, its clouds are composed of methane that erodes the surface and river channels as it falls as rain and fills its lakes and seas. When exposed to sunlight, the methane evaporates and rises to the atmosphere again, regenerating Titan's clouds.

The activity of methane through Titan's atmosphere allows complex chemistry to happen, particularly when sunlight splits methane molecules, creating fragments that recombine as complex organic molecules.

This team theorizes that vesicles might form on Titan when sea-spray droplets are thrown into the atmosphere by methane raindrops landing on the surface of lakes and seas.

If the surfaces of Titan's seas are coated with layers of amphiphiles, the sea-spray droplets will be too. That means when those launched droplets fall back to the methane seas, they meet the amphiphile sea-layer and form a bilayer vesicle, enclosing the original droplet.

Over time, these vesicles could be dispersed through the lakes and seas, interacting and potentially leading to the creation of protocells.

The discovery is sure to generate excitement for NASA's forthcoming Dragonfly mission, which will set off for Titan in 2028. Arriving in 2034, the nuclear-powered rotocopter craft aims to explore prebiotic chemistry and habitability on the Saturnian moon.

Understanding this process as it occurs on Titan, if it is occurring, could shed light on the mystery of how life emerged on Earth.

The team's research was published on July 10 in the journal International Journal of Astrobiology.

What is it?

From April 29 to May 1 of this year, the team ascended Western Europe's tallest peak, carrying with them their Vespera Pro smart telescope. Despite being blocked from the true peak of Mount Blanc by a hazardous snow bridge, the team succeeded in their scientific expedition, setting up their telescope to get unprecedented views of the sky.

Where is it?

This photo was taken on Mount Blanc at 14,100 feet (4,300 meters) above sea level, a bit below the 15,780-foot (4,810 m) summit.

Why is it amazing?

From their position close to the summit of Mount Blanc, the team was able to capture high-altitude images of the sun with the Vespera Pro telescope. They were even able to observe Malin-1, the largest known spiral galaxy, which lies more than a billion light years from Earth.

"Inspired by the Janssen Observatory built atop Mont Blanc in the late 19th century, I decided to follow in trailblazer Jules Janssen's footsteps and capture from the Alpine skies a unique image of the sun as well as the largest known spiral galaxy, a nod to Janssen's research — though this time armed with 21st-century technology," explained Dupuy in a recent statement.

The trip was one of many that astrophotographers like Dupuy take to remote locations with less light pollution to photograph crisp, clear night skies. By combining long-exposure techniques and camera and telescope technology, astrophotographers can see details far beyond what the naked eye can see: star clusters, the Milky Way, and even the faint glow of other galaxies.

Want to learn more?

You can read more about astrophotography, the best telescopes to get started, and more about capturing our night skies.

This Mars rock is up for auction at Sotheby's in New York City this week, which is why it's currently on display in the Upper East Side. As of now, it's expected to sell for between $2 million and $4 million, but it could very well sell for far more.

"At the end of the day, it's the bidders who tell us what things are worth, not me, not anyone else. The estimates are just there to give people an indication," Cassandra Hatton, the vice chairman of science and natural history at Sotheby's, told Space.com. "Last summer, I sold the Stegosaurus 'Apex.' For the Stegosaurus, the estimate was [$4 million to $6 million], and it sold for $44.6 million."

Hatton said she first heard about the Mars rock (formally called NWA 16788) about a year ago from the rock's seller, who learned about the specimen from a meteorite hunter in Africa. ("NWA" is short for "Northwest Africa," the region where the rock was found.) "When they first acquired it, they called me right away," she said. "I said, 'All right, we have got to get it tested; we need to have it published in the meteoritical bulletin."

As such, the seller went through several formal steps to document and test the rock as well as have it published upon. That testing process was rather rigorous for a few reasons. First of all, unlike lunar meteorite candidates, possible Mars meteorites have no pristine samples to be compared with. During the Apollo years, astronauts physically brought hundreds of pounds of moon rocks back to Earth, and those samples still serve as the isotopic reference point for determining whether a rock is indeed a lunar meteorite or just a peculiar piece of our planet.

Astronauts haven't visited the Red Planet yet, so of course we don't have any Mars rock reference points — and though there is still talk of a possible Mars Sample Return program to bring home samples that NASA's Perseverance rover has been collecting from the Martian surface over the last few years, the timeline on that is as unclear as can be. It may even be cancelled, if the Trump administration's fiscal year 2026 budget proposal is passed as-is by Congress.

Alas, the testing team had to come up with a workaround, and they did so by considering a few clues we have about what a Martian meteorite should look like.

How do you verify a Mars rock?

Imagine something huge impacting another world — in this case, an asteroid striking Mars long ago. As a consequence of that impact, there'd have been a bunch of stuff that shot upward during the crash — chunks of the Martian surface, particles of dust, and who knows what else. If any of that debris managed to shoot far enough to exit the Martian atmosphere, it'd have been possible for those travelers to reach Earth, travel through our atmosphere and land somewhere on our world.

Because of this journey, Martian atmospheric data is important to consider when verifying whether something is a Mars rock — and thanks to the twin Viking landers that NASA sent to Mars in the '70s, scientists indeed have that atmospheric data.

"You'll find little gas pockets in a lot of Martian meteorites," Hatton said. "We've cut those pockets open and compared the gas in those pockets to the gas that we analyzed from the Martian atmosphere — and if they match up, then we know that rock came from Mars."

The next step has to do with the general composition of a meteorite. Typically, Hatton explains, meteorites contain what's known as "Maskelynite" glass, which forms as the result of the big crash that forced the meteorite off the surface of a world.

"That's layer one," she explained. "Is there Maskelynite glass in this rock? If it is, it's a meteorite, because we only find that in meteorites."

"Then it's very easy," she said. "What's the [chemical makeup] of this rock? Compare it to a [Mars] rock that we have that we found in the desert — if they match, then boom. That's Martian."

The market price of Mars

Usually, pricing rare items that come into Sotheby's isn't too much of an ordeal. For instance, if you're trying to figure out the value of an antique necklace, you can look at the value of the stones and metals in the piece, think about the fame of the designer and look into how much other items from the same era cost.

Similar thought processes help auction houses estimate the value of objects like photographs, autographs, technology and art. "If I have a Picasso, I just compare it to the other Picassos," Hatton said. "Is it bigger, blue or older? Is it depicting Marie-Thérèse [Walter, a French model and muse of the artist]?"

The same can't be said for rare scientific items.

"I really have to think about the context, the background, the history, the rarity, the significance, and then I put an estimate on it," Hatton said.

In the case of the Mars rock soon to be up for auction, she said the cost estimate of $2 million to $4 million came from the fact that it's the biggest Red Planet meteorite we have. For context, other, smaller Martian meteorites have sold for between $20,000 and $80,000, Hatton said, but she emphasized that bigger isn't exactly always better in the auction world. Sometimes, the bigger you get, the more likely it is for the bidding price to go down.

"How many people could fit a 100-foot long sauropod in their house? Nobody, not even every museum could fit a sauropod that's 100 feet long," she said, as an example. "So, then your market gets much smaller. That's also something to consider: Who could maintain this? Who could have it in their home?"

But that reasoning doesn't really apply in this case, because NWA 16788 — though huge for a Mars meteorite — can still fit into an average-sized backpack. So, Hatton calls the maximum $4 million figure on the Mars rock at hand a conservative estimate.

But beyond all the statistics, there's also an unusual aesthetic value to consider with NWA 16788.

"It also looks just like the surface of the Red Planet," she said. "Most other Martian meteorites that we find are really small, thin slices, and when you first look at them, you would never guess that they're Martian."

"This one has really amazing fusion crust on the outside," she added. "If you look closely at it, you could almost use it as a film set for a movie about Mars — put little teeny people on there, because you could see the grooves and the ripples and the mountains on it."

But, well, does this belong in a museum?

When asked why she believes a specimen so brilliant it can be called the "largest Mars rock on Earth" should be auctioned off to a collector rather than donated to a public museum or scientific institution — it's no secret that many would argue for the latter — Hatton looked back at the history of museums as a whole.

"If we didn't have personal private collectors, we would not have museums," she said. "Many of my clients give the things to museums or loan them to museums."

She also explained that having to pay for something may make one more likely to care for their property: "If it's precious to you monetarily, you take care of it. Having this value tied to the object helps ensure that it is taken care of."

"There are some museums that don't have the funding and the staff to properly care for objects," she added. "So, a lot of times, the private collectors are saving these objects. They're making sure that they're taken care of."

Hatton also pointed out that many major collectors loan their items to museums, and as part of that loan, offer extra money to have staff take care of the items or fund postdoctoral researchers to study them.

"Part of what I am hoping, and I think I am achieving with a lot of these sales, is raising the profile of all of these different types of space, sci-tech and natural history objects, and helping people understand how important they are."

And though Hatton doesn't allow herself to place her own personal value estimate on the Mars rock — or anything she's auctioning off, for that matter — she highlighted that auctions aren't always purely about the items themselves.

"I've had people cry after they've bought things at an auction. I've cried when I've had people contact me and say, 'will you sell this?' because there [are] your white whales — your grails that you hope maybe one day you'll get to see. I always root for people to get what they want, because it's not just about the object. They're kind of chasing a dream."

The newfound exoplanet, called Kepler-139f, is a gigantic world roughly twice the mass of Neptune and 35 times the mass of Earth, and it takes 355 days to orbit its star, astronomers reported in a study published May 2 in The Astrophysical Journal Letters. Despite its giant size, Kepler-139f had evaded detection.

That's because the initial yield of NASA's Kepler space telescope, which discovered nearly 3,000 planets in its nine years of operation, relied on worlds transiting — passing between their star and Earth. The resulting dimming of the star allowed astronomers to identify planets and calculate their size. But Kepler couldn't see planets traveling above or below the wedge of space between it and the star, so any outliers remained unseen.

But if the hidden world was part of a multiplanet system, astronomers could try to find it despite its inclined orbit. Kepler-139 has three rocky transiting super-Earths; a fourth gas giant was later discovered. Gaps in their orbits suggested that other worlds might be present. Precise measurements of the orbits allowed the astronomers to infer the existence of at least one more planet.

"The issue is not exactly finding non-transiting planets, but rather, finding situations in which we can deduce where the non-transiting planet is located," Caleb Lammers, a graduate student in the Department of Astrophysical Science at Princeton and co-author of the study, told Space.com by email.

Discovering Kepler-139f

Kepler's initial identification of a world was often followed up by observations from the ground. Using radial velocity (RV), astronomers could measure how much a planet tugged on its star, allowing them to determine the planet's mass. RV measurements could also reveal new worlds, as happened with the outermost gas giant, Kepler-139e.

At the same time, each planet is pulled by not only its star but also by other planets in the system, regardless of whether that planet can be seen from Earth. These pulls can affect how swiftly a planet transits, thus creating "transit timing variations" (TTVs). These variations in the transiting planets can reveal worlds that don't cross the star.

"When you observe TTVs that cannot be attributed to the known planets, you can be fairly confident that there is an unseen body in the system," Lammers said.

Lammers and his colleague Joshua Winn, a participating scientist on the Kepler team and co-author of the study, went looking for gaps in known systems. Then, they used both RV and TTV measurements to hunt for a missing world, revising existing TTVs based on the 2023 discovery of Kepler-139e.

"What was different in the case of Kepler-139 is that we had precise radial velocity observations which did not conclusively point towards a new planet on their own," Lammers said. Combined with the TTVs, the observations revealed a fifth planet, Kepler-139f, tucked between the outermost super-Earth and the gas giant.

The new discovery also helped to answer a question about Kepler-139e. The original reports of Kepler-139c, the outermost super-Earth, provided an unusually large density for a sub-Neptune-size planet.

The discrepancy occurred because those authors didn't know about Kepler139f, so they had attributed some of its pull on its star to Kepler-139c. The new data suggest a more typical density for Kepler-139c while leaving the densities for Kepler-139d and Kepler-139b essentially unchanged. These revisions provide indirect evidence for Kepler-139f, Lammers said.

There may even be other hidden worlds around Kepler-139. "It remains possible that there are other unseen planets in the system," Lammers said, pointing to the prominent gap between planets b and c. "The challenge is finding them!"

Hidden worlds

Both Kepler and NASA's more recent exoplanet hunting mission, the Transiting Exoplanet Survey Satellite (TESS), were sensitive to planets orbiting closer to their star. These inner worlds were more likely to make many transits, allowing scientists to confirm the planet's existence. But transiting planets with wider orbits made only a handful of passes, so they were more challenging to observe and confirm.

At the same time, the RV method tends to be biased toward larger planets, because the more massive a world is, the stronger it tugs on its star. Proximity helps; the pull of the planet is amplified to the square inverse of its distance. Thus, a planet twice as far away will have only one-fourth the gravitational pull. That's why many of the first discovered exoplanets were Jupiter-size worlds that circled their star in only a few days.

All of these factors make it harder to discover smaller planets that are farther away, particularly if they don't transit their star. But by combining transits, RVs and TTVs, astronomers can find smaller, hidden worlds orbiting farther from their star.

"It is likely that many planetary systems host unseen worlds, especially in their outer regions," Lammers said.

But soon, it will be harder for those worlds to hide. In 2026, the European Space Agency will launch its Planetary Transits and Oscillations of Stars (PLATO) mission, which will conduct its own survey of transiting planets, as well as revisit Kepler's field. In providing additional transit times for planets detected by Kepler more than a decade later, PLATO will improve measurements of TTVs to enable the discovery of more misaligned worlds.

"In the coming years, the TTV planet detection technique will probably be accelerated dramatically by the PLATO mission," Lammars said.

These systems are known as cataclysmic variables, and their occupant vampire stars are white dwarfs, the type of stellar remnant that stars with masses around that of the sun leave behind when they die.

The matter stolen from their victim stellar companions by these white dwarfs piles up on the dead stars' surfaces, eventually causing them to go supernova and be obliterated. Though the endings of cataclysmic variables are fairly well understood, this research suggests at least one new origin story.

"Our results are revealing another formation channel for cataclysmic variables," California Institute of Technology (Caltech) researcher Kareem El-Badry said in a statement. "Sometimes, a lurking third star is key."

Lurking third stars are terrible matchmakers

The current consensus on cataclysmic variables is that they form when two stars are brought together by a "common envelope" of gas wrapped around them. This is known as "common envelope evolution."

Eventually, one of these two stars swells up as a red giant, puffing out to up to 100 times its original size, swallowing its stellar companion. After this envelope causes these stars to spiral together, it is ejected. The red giant is now a stripped core called a white dwarf with a companion star close enough for the dead star to strip it of its outer layers.

While many stars exist in binaries, triple-star systems are also common in the universe. That prompted El-Badry, Caltech graduate student Cheyanne Shariat, and their team to wonder how this process would play out for three stars.

To investigate this, the duo turned to the European Space Agency (ESA) mission Gaia. Before its recent retirement, Gaia tracked billions of stars to collect data that is allowing scientists to construct a detailed 3D map of our cosmic backyard.

El-Badry and Shariat found 50 cataclysmic variables in triple-star systems in which two stars are closely partnered while a third orbits at a much wider distance.

These results suggested to the duo that around 10% of cataclysmic variables are found in triple-star systems, a percentage that would be lower if lurking third stars had no role in creating cataclysmic variables.

To confirm this connection, the astronomers ran 2,000 simulations of hypothetical triple-star systems, watching the gravitational interactions between the three stars as the systems evolved.

In 400 of the systems, cataclysmic variables were born without the common envelope phase occurring. In that 20% sample of the total simulations, it was the third star that "torqued" the main binary, forcing them together.

"The gravity of the third star causes the binary stars to have a super eccentric orbit, and this forces the companion star closer to the white dwarf," Shariat said. "Tidal forces dissipate energy and shrink and circularize the orbit. The star doesn't have to spiral in through the common envelope."

But that wasn't all. In 60% of the simulated systems, a common envelope phase did begin, and it was triggered by the third star.

In the remaining 20% of the simulations, the common envelope formed in the standard way without the third star contributing.

Adjusting their data to account for a more realistic population of stars, reflective of the Milky Way, and including known cataclysmic variables, the duo predicted 40% of cataclysmic variables form in triple systems.

That is four times higher than the Gaia sample. The team reasons that this is because many third stars in these systems were either too difficult to see or have been ejected from the system.

The simulations performed by El-Badry and Shariat also allowed the team to predict the type of triple-star systems more likely to form cataclysmic variables.

They found white dwarfs were more likely to feed on a stellar companion with the assistance of a third star when the system starts with the third star separated by over 100 times the distance between Earth and the sun.

Indeed, Gaia data did seem to show that triple systems with cataclysmic variables do indeed tend to display wider orbits.

"For the past 50 years, people were using the spiral-in common-envelope evolution model to explain cataclysmic variable formation," El-Badry concluded. "Nobody had noticed before that this was largely happening in triples!"

The team's research was published in the journal Publications of the Astronomical Society of the Pacific.

While the theories of this well-heeled amateur astronomer might seem fanciful when viewed from 2025, given what was known at the time, a large percentage of the public found Lowell's theories about an inhabited Mars not just credible, but likely. Lowell went so far as to theorize that the planet was straddled by canals, designed and executed by hyper-intelligent beings, that would carry water from the poles to the equator of the apparently arid planet.

While other astronomers had their doubts, popular notions of Mars as a colder and drier near-twin of Earth persisted for almost a half century longer, well into the 1960s. In 1953, Wernher von Braun, who would go on to design NASA's giant Saturn V moon rocket, wrote a seminal work called "The Mars Project,” the first comprehensive look at how to send people to the Red Planet. The centerpiece was a number of huge, winged gliders that would land astronauts on Mars by navigating what was then thought to be an atmosphere perhaps half the density of Earth's.

More generally, contemporary maps of Mars were still based on observations from telescopes like Lowell's 24-inch refractor up to Mount Palomar's 200-inch giant reflector. But even that latter monster showed only a shimmering red blob of a planet with shifting, indistinct imagery.

In short, in the mid-20th century, our understanding of Mars was still as much intuition and imagination as fact. That all changed 60 years ago on July 14, 1965, when a small spacecraft sped by the planet at a distance of just 6,118 miles (9,846 kilometers). After the 22 low-resolution TV images made it back to Earth, the Martian empire dreamed of by Lowell and fiction authors like Edgar Rice Burroughs were smashed into red dust.

Some of NASA's earliest planetary missions, Mariners 3 and 4 were planned and executed by a group of pioneering scientists at the California Institute of Technology (Caltech) and its associated NASA field center, the Jet Propulsion Laboratory (JPL). NASA was a brand-new agency when the planning for the first Mars flyby was begun a few years earlier, but the core science team had been working together at Caltech for years, and included one of the newest additions to the geology faculty — Bruce Murray, who would later become the fifth director of JPL. Other Caltech professors on the Mariner Mars team were Robert Sharp and Gerry Neugebauer, professors of geology, and Robert Leighton and Victor Neher, both professors of physics.

Despite the impressive intellect brought to bear, the project was, by today's standards, a plunge into the unknown. The combined Caltech and JPL team had little spaceflight experience to guide them. There had been just one successful flight beyond lunar orbit — Mariner 2's dash past Venus in 1962 — to build upon. There was no Deep Space Network to track and command the spacecraft, and navigating to Venus was less challenging than the voyage to Mars, which was almost twice as long — some 325 million miles (523 million km). And while the Mariner design was ultimately quite successful, at the time, flying machines in the harsh environment of space was in its infancy. Most failed to achieve their goals.

Incredibly, the probe was originally designed, like the Venus-bound Mariner 2 that had recently returned copious "squiggly-line” data from that planet, without a camera. Leighton took exception to this, realizing that a lot of valuable data would be gleaned from visual imagery. He had a long history in optical astronomy and was not about to pass up this opportunity to get a close look at Mars. He also understood a more human side of the mission: Images of the planet could forge a powerful connection between planetary science and the public.

Mariner 4 had a twin, Mariner 3, which launched on Nov. 5, 1964. The Atlas rocket that boosted it clear of the atmosphere functioned perfectly (not always the case, given its high failure rate in that era), but the fairing in which Mariner 3 rode became snagged, and the spacecraft, unable to collect sunlight on its solar panels, died within hours, drifting into a heliocentric orbit.

After a hurried fix, Mariner 4 launched three weeks later on Nov. 28 with a redesigned fairing. The probe deployed as planned and began the long journey to Mars. But there was more drama in store: The primitive guidance system, oriented by a photocell device that was intended to acquire and track the bright star Canopus, became confused — both by other stars of similar brightness and also by a cloud of dust and paint flecks ejected when the spacecraft deployed. Ultimately, the tracker was able to find Canopus and the journey continued without incident. This star-tracking technology, along with an instrument-laden scan platform and various other design features, was central to planetary missions for decades.

Just over seven months later, Mars was in the crosshairs. On July 14, 1965, Mariner's science instruments were activated. These included a magnetometer to measure magnetic fields, a Geiger counter to measure radiation, a cosmic-ray telescope, a cosmic dust detector, and the television camera.

This last device had caused no end of consternation. At the time, TV cameras used fragile glass tubes and, with their associated electronics, were slightly smaller than dishwashers. Space-capable TV imagers were not available, and few people had thought to even try designing one. Leighton's team spent countless hours coming up with a low-resolution, slow-scan Vidicon tube — a glass vacuum tube aimed through a toughened telescope — that could withstand the violence of launch and the harsh temperature variations in space.

Just a few hours after the science package was put to work, the TV camera began acquiring images. About nine hours later, with the spacecraft heading away from Mars, the on-board tape recorder, which had stored the data from the primitive camera, initiated playback and transmitted the raw images to Earth. And what images they were.

The first views arrived at JPL shortly after midnight on July 15. These were initially represented by numeric printouts that had to be interpreted into black-and-white images, but the imaging team was impatient. They cut the numbered paper into strips, pasted them onto a backboard, and played "paint by numbers" with grease markers to create an eerily accurate first look.

Once the computer-processed photographs arrived, though they were soft and indistinct, and spectroscopic and other measurements were still inexact, the combined data turned our notions about the true nature of the Red Planet on their head. Within hours, Mars had descended from Lowell's fever dreams to cold, harsh reality.

Quick calculations told the story — Mars was a frigid, desert world, and those who still held to Lowell's dreams of a possible Martian empire had to concede defeat. The planet was a moon-like desert, a place of intense cratering and wide empty plains. The final blow came shortly after the flyby, when Mariner directed its radio signal through the limb of the Martian atmosphere. The atmospheric density was found to be about 1/100th that of Earth. For the dreamers, Mars died on that day in 1965.

But for the gathered Caltech team savoring the fuzzy pictures from Mariner 4's sprint, this was a victory. After the discovery of Venus' true nature, when a planet thought to be a swampy, humid world was revealed as a hellish place of intense pressure and searing temperatures, Mars seemed almost welcoming. And the inclusion of a TV camera on the mission added a human touch that transcended the numbers, bringing the fourth planet into living rooms worldwide.

When discussing the mission a few years later, Leighton related one touching letter he received from, of all people, a milkman. It read, "I'm not very close to your world, but I really appreciate what you are doing. Keep it going." A soft-spoken Leighton said of the sentiment, "A letter from a milkman… I thought that was kind of nice."

After its voyage past Mars, Mariner 4 maintained intermittent communication with JPL and returned data about the interplanetary environment for two more years. But by the end of 1967, the spacecraft had suffered close to 100 micrometeoroid impacts and was out of fuel. The mission was officially ended on Dec. 21.

Since then, a multitude of spacecraft have rocketed Marsward from a variety of nations. The path to Mars is still challenging, and the U.S. leads in successes. From the Viking Mars orbiters and landers of the 1970s through the Curiosity and Perseverance rovers, which are still operating today, the Red Planet has crept from the dreadful waste seen by Mariner 4 to a place once covered in shallow oceans and with a possibly temperate atmosphere. And while we have never found any signs of Percival Lowell's high-society Martians, we may soon live in their stead.

NASA's Parker Solar Probe is no stranger to breaking records.

On Dec. 24, 2024, Parker made history by flying closer to the sun than any spacecraft in history. The probe reached a distance of just 3.8 million miles (6.1 million kilometers) from the solar surface, entering the outermost layer of the sun's atmosphere, known as the corona. During this flyby, it also reached a top speed of 430,000 miles per hour (690,000 kilometers per hour), breaking its own record as the fastest ever human-made object.

Now, NASA has released remarkable video captured during the historic flyby, offering the closest views of the sun ever recorded. The new images were captured with Parker's Wide-Field Imager for Solar Probe, or WISPR, revealing a never-before-seen view of the sun's corona and solar winds shortly after they are released from the corona.

"Parker Solar Probe has once again transported us into the dynamic atmosphere of our closest star," said Nicky Fox, associate administrator, Science Mission Directorate at NASA Headquarters in Washington, in a statement accompanying the images. "We are witnessing where space weather threats to Earth begin, with our eyes, not just with models. This new data will help us vastly improve our space weather predictions to ensure the safety of our astronauts and the protection of our technology here on Earth and throughout the solar system."

WISPR's images revealed an important boundary in the sun's atmosphere called the heliospheric current sheet, where the sun's magnetic field changes direction from north to south. It also captured, for the first time in high resolution, collisions between multiple coronal mass ejections (CMEs), which are major drivers of space weather, and are important in understanding risks to astronauts and technology on Earth such as power grids and communications satellites.

"In these images, we're seeing the CMEs basically piling up on top of one another," said Angelos Vourlidas, the WISPR instrument scientist at the Johns Hopkins Applied Physics Laboratory, which designed, built, and operates the spacecraft in Laurel, Maryland. "We're using this to figure out how the CMEs merge together."

Before the Parker Solar Probe, NASA and its international partners could only study solar wind from afar, which is why the spacecraft has been instrumental in closing key knowledge gaps. It identified the widespread presence of "switchbacks" — zig-zagging magnetic field patterns — around 14.7 million miles from the sun and linked them to the origins of one of the two main types of solar wind.

Closer in, at just 8 million miles, Parker discovered that the boundary of the sun's corona is far more uneven and complex than previously believed.

But more remained to be discovered.

"The big unknown has been: how is the solar wind generated, and how does it manage to escape the sun's immense gravitational pull?" said Nour Rawafi, the project scientist for Parker Solar Probe at the Johns Hopkins Applied Physics Laboratory. "Understanding this continuous flow of particles, particularly the slow solar wind, is a major challenge, especially given the diversity in the properties of these streams — but with Parker Solar Probe, we're closer than ever to uncovering their origins and how they evolve."

Prior to Parker Solar Probe, distant observations suggested there are actually two varieties of slow solar wind, distinguished by the orientation or variability of their magnetic fields. One type of slow solar wind, called Alfvénic, has small-scale switchbacks. The second type, called non-Alfvénic, doesn't show these variations in its magnetic field.

As it spiraled closer to the sun, Parker Solar Probe confirmed there are indeed two types of solar wind. Its close-up views are also helping scientists differentiate the origins of the two types, which scientists believe are unique. The non-Alfvénic wind may come off features called helmet streamers — large loops connecting active regions where some particles can heat up enough to escape — whereas Alfvénic wind might originate near coronal holes, or dark, cool regions in the corona.

"We don't have a final consensus yet, but we have a whole lot of new intriguing data," said Adam Szabo, Parker Solar Probe mission scientist at NASA's Goddard Space Flight Center in Greenbelt, Maryland.

The Parker Solar Probe is built to endure extreme conditions — from the freezing cold of deep space to the intense heat near the sun. A key factor in its survival is the difference between temperature and heat. While space near the sun can reach temperatures of several million degrees, that doesn't necessarily mean there's a lot of heat. This is because the sun's corona is extremely thin, meaning there are fewer particles. Even though individual particles in the corona are incredibly hot, there aren't many. The probe, therefore, doesn't receive much heat.

"While Parker Solar Probe will be traveling through a space with temperatures of several million degrees, the surface of [its] heat shield that faces the sun will only get heated to about 2,500 degrees Fahrenheit (about 1,400 degrees Celsius)," write NASA scientists.

These temperatures are, of course, still incredibly hot, which makes its heat shield, the Thermal Protection System (TPS), essential. The shield is made from a carbon composite foam sandwiched between two carbon plates. Carbon is ideal for this purpose because it is both lightweight and able to withstand extremely high temperatures without melting.

"Tested to withstand up to 3,000 degrees Fahrenheit (1,650 degrees Celsius), the TPS can handle any heat the sun can send its way, keeping almost all instrumentation safe," explained NASA.

Its structure allows it to endure intense heat while minimizing weight, making it crucial for a spacecraft that needs to travel at extreme speeds. The outer surface of the TPS is also coated with a white ceramic paint, which helps reflect as much solar energy as possible and further reduces the amount of heat absorbed.

Scientists led by Xinyue Yang of the University of Houston analyzed decades of readings from spacecraft and computer models to find that Uranus emits 12.5% more internal heat than the amount of heat it receives from the sun. However, that amount is still far less than the internal heat of other outer solar system planets like Jupiter, Saturn and Neptune, which emit 100% more heat than they get from the sun.

The researchers behind this new study say Uranus' internal heat could help reveal the origins of the curious, tilted world. "This means it's still slowly losing leftover heat from its early history, a key piece of the puzzle that helps us understand its origins and how it has changed over time," Wang said in a statement.

In 1986, the iconic Voyager 2 probe flew by Uranus while headed out of the solar system and into interstellar space. A good deal of what scientists understand about the seventh planet from the sun comes from that flyby, that found that Uranus does not reveal significant internal heat.

But it turns out that we may have caught Uranus at a weird time, and some of the readings Voyager 2 collected could have been skewed by a surge in solar weather that occurred during its flyby of the planet.

By reviewing a large set of archival data and combining that with computer models, researchers now believe the internal heat emitted by Uranus could imply a completely different internal structure or evolutionary history for the planet we thought we knew. Its believed that Uranus formed around 4.5 billion years ago along with the rest of the solar system, and NASA believes it formed closer to the sun before moving to the outer solar system around 0.5 billion years later. That story, however, is now called into question by these new findings.

"From a scientific perspective, this study helps us better understand Uranus and other giant planets," Wang said in the statement. The researchers also believe this new understanding of Uranus' internal processes could help NASA and other agencies plan for missions to the distant planet.

In 2022, the National Academy of Sciences flagged a mission concept known notionally as Uranus Orbiter and Probe (UOP) as one of the highest-priority planetary science missions for the next decade. But even then, before massive budget uncertainty hit NASA and the science community in the wake of President Donald Trump's overhaul of U.S. government spending, scientists knew such an ambitious and expensive mission would be difficult to put into motion.

"There are many hurdles to come — political, financial, technical — so we're under no illusion," Leigh Fletcher, a planetary scientist at the University of Leicester in the U.K. who participated in the decadal survey process, told Space.com in 2022 when the report was published. "We have about a decade to go from a paper mission to hardware in a launch fairing. There's no time to lose."

Whether or not new research into Uranus helps boost support for such a mission, scientists are already hailing these new results as groundbreaking on their own. Study co-author Liming Li said the study of Uranus' internal heat not only helps us understand the distant, icy world better, but could also help inform studies of similar processes here on Earth, including our own changing climate.

"By uncovering how Uranus stores and loses heat, we gain valuable insights into the fundamental processes that shape planetary atmospheres, weather systems and climate systems," Li said in the statement. "These findings help broaden our perspective on Earth's atmospheric system and the challenges of climate change."

A study on Uranus' internal heat was published in the journal Geophysical Research Letters.

What is it?

The 13.4 foot (4.1 meter) telescope has been a major hub for researchers in the Southern Hemisphere using optical and near-infrared astronomy to study the stars. According to NOIRLab, the telescope was initiated in 1987 by the University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill. It's run by an international consortium which includes Brazil, Chile, Michigan State University and the University of North Carolina.

Only a short distance away on the same peak is the Gemini South telescope, which also looks at the stars in both visible and infrared wavelengths.

Where is it?

The SOAR Telescope sits on the peak of Cerro Pachón, part of the Chilean Andes mountain range.

Why is it amazing?

Recently, a rare winter storm swept across the Atacama desert, bringing snow to the driest place on Earth. While the event created a beautiful landscape, its impact varied among the observatories located in the remote part of Chile.

For the SOAR telescope, high up in the Chilean Andes, the snow was a gentle dusting that coated the observatory, making for some stunning images.

However, lower down in elevation, the Atacama Large Millimeter/submillimeter Array (ALMA) facility at Chajnantor Plateu faced more severe conditions, forcing all scientific operations to be suspended since June 26, 2025. ALMA's remote location and reliance on sensitive electronics made it especially vulnerable to weather extremes, even brief ones.

Want to learn more?

You can read more about telescopes like SOAR and astronomy happening in the Atacama desert.